Anne E. Barrett

Family structure and mental health : The mediating effects of socioeconomic status, family process, and social stress

Although numerous studies reveal differences in mental health by the structure of ones family of origin, there remains debate regarding the processes generating these patterns. Using a sample of young adults (19–21 years) in Miami-Dade County in Florida, this study examines the explanatory significance of three presumed correlates of family type: socioeconomic status, family processes, and level of social stress. Consistent with prior research, our results reveal higher levels of depressive symptoms among those from stepfamilies, single parent families, and single parent families with other relatives present, compared with mother-father families. All three presumed correlates make significant independent contributions to the prediction of depressive symptomatology. Substantial mediating effects also are observed for all three explanatory dimensions. Collectively, they completely or largely explain observed family type variations in mental health risk.

Marital trajectories and mental health.

This study expands the marital status and mental health literature by examining several dimensions of marital trajectories, including the number and type of prior marital losses and duration in current status. Data are drawn from the Piedmont Health Survey of the National Institute of Mental Health Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study, collected in 1982-83 (n = 2,158). Results indicate that number of prior losses moderates the health-enhancing effect of being currently married; higher order marriages are associated with worse mental health. Although results vary across the mental illnesses examined (depression, anxiety, and substance use), the negative effect of multiple loss also is observed for the currently divorced and widowed. There is less evidence that the type of prior loss (i.e., divorce or widowhood) moderates the effect of current marital status on mental health; however, some support is found among the presently widowed. The analyses of duration in current status suggest that the rate of decline in symptoms of anxiety following ones most recent loss varies by marital history among the currently widowed.

Nonmarital Romantic Relationships and Mental Health in Early Adulthood: Does the Association Differ for Women and Men?.

Although social scientists have long assumed that intimate social relationships are more closely associated with women’s than men’s mental health, recent research indicates that there are no gender differences in the advantages of marriage and disadvantages of unmarried statuses when males’ and females’ distinct expressions of emotional distress are considered. These findings have led to the conclusion that there has been a convergence in the importance of intimate relationships for men’s and women’s mental health. However, these patterns may not be evident for nonmarital romantic relationships among current cohorts of young adults. In this article, we examine the associations among several dimensions of these relationships and symptoms of both depression and substance abuse/dependence in a diverse sample of young adults in Miami, Florida. We find gender differences that vary across dimensions of relationships: While current involvements and recent breakups are more closely associated with women’s than men’s mental health, support and strain in an ongoing relationship are more closely associated with men’s than women’s emotional well-being. Our findings highlight the need to consider the period in the life course as well as experiences of specific cohorts of men and women when theorizing about gender differences in the importance of intimate relationships for mental health.

Trajectories of gender role orientations in adolescence and early adulthood: a prospective study of the mental health effects of masculinity and femininity.

Adolescence is the segment of the life course when gender differences in mental health emerge and gender becomes a more salient factor shaping orientations toward oneself and views of ones place in the social world. This study uses mixture modeling, to identify trajectories of masculinity and femininity between ages 12 and 25, and OLS regression, to examine the effects of those trajectories on mental health in young adulthood (measured as depressive symptoms and alcohol problems at age 25). Four waves of prospective data from the Rutgers Health and Human Development Project are used; respondents (n = 447) are age 12 at Wave 1 (1979-81), 15 at Wave 2 (1982-84), 18 at Wave 3 (1985-87), and 25 at Wave 4 (1992-94). Results indicate that having relatively high and increasing levels of masculinity over adolescence decreases depressive symptoms in early adulthood for both males and females. Reflecting the privileging of males over females, the findings suggest that masculinity, but not femininity, is a central axis on which advantages and disadvantages across some dimensions of mental health accumulate over adolescence.

Forever young? A comparison of age identities in the United States and Germany

This study compares age identities of middle-aged and older adults in the United States and Germany. Differences between countries in social systems and cultural meanings of old age are expected to produce different age identities. Data are from respondents between ages 40 and 74 in the United States (MIDUS; n = 2,006) and Germany (German Aging Survey; n = 3,331). Americans and Germans tend to feel younger than their actual age, but the discrepancy is larger among Americans. The bias toward youthful identities is stronger at older ages, particularly among Americans. In both counties, persons with better health have younger identities and role losses are not related to age identities. The study shows that different social and cultural systems produce different subjective experiences of aging. As these differences exist within Western culture, the study makes clear that one should be careful in generalizing findings from aging research across countries.

The influence of subjective aging on health and longevity: A meta-analysis of longitudinal data

Evidence is accumulating on the effects of subjective aging-that is, how individuals perceive their own aging process-on health and survival in later life. The goal of this article is to synthesize findings of existing longitudinal studies through a meta-analysis. A systematic search in PsycInfo, Web of Science, Scopus, and Pubmed resulted in 19 longitudinal studies reporting effects of subjective aging on health, health behaviors, and longevity. The authors combine the outcomes reported in these studies using a random effects meta-analysis, assuming that there would be differences in effect sizes across studies. The meta-analysis resulted in an overall significant effect of subjective aging (likelihood ratio = 1.429; 95% confidence interval = 1.273-1.604; p < .001). The analyses revealed heterogeneity, with stronger effects for studies with a shorter period of follow-up, for studies of health versus survival, for studies with younger participants (average age of the studies varies between 57 and 85 years with a median of 63 years), and for studies in welfare systems where state provisions of welfare are minimal. However, effects did not vary either across different operationalizations of subjective aging or by study quality. Subjective aging has a small significant effect on health, health behaviors, and survival. Further theoretical conceptualizations and empirical studies are needed to determine how subjective aging contributes to health and survival.

Social Support and Life Satisfaction among the Never Married Examining the Effects of Age

This article examines the role of social support (measured as presence of a confidant, perceived social support, and frequency of informal interaction) in determining life satisfaction among the never married. Using data from Wave I (1986) of Americans’ Changing Lives, social support of the never married (n = 266) is compared with that of the married (n = 1,765) and previously married (n = 1,147). Results indicate that age moderates the effect of marital status on social support such that the negative effects of being never married are greatest among the elderly. In the analyses of life satisfaction, marital status and social support are significant predictors. Moreover, social support partially mediates the effect of marital status on life satisfaction.

The Multiple Sources of Women∍s Aging Anxiety and Their Relationship With Psychological Distress

Objective: The authors examine associations of three sources of womens aging anxiety—declining attractiveness, health, and fertility—with social contexts of their lives, including locations in systems of inequality, connections to institutions, relationships, and health. They also explore links between aging anxieties and distress. Method: Employing data from the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States conducted in 1995-1996, the authors use logistic and OLS regression. Results: Anxiety about attractiveness is higher among women who are younger, White, heterosexual, employed, separated/divorced, less financially independent, and have worse relationships. Anxiety about health is greater among women who are younger, White, less financially independent, and have worse relationships and health. Anxiety about fertility is higher among younger, more educated, heterosexual, more financially independent, and childless women. Anxiety about health and attractiveness predicts greater distress. Discussion: This study suggests that correlates and mental health consequences of aging anxiety differ across sources of concern.

Online Dating in Middle and Later Life: Gendered Expectations and Experiences

Rising numbers of single middle-aged and older adults encouraged a proliferation of online dating websites targeting this population. However, few studies examine aging adults’ involvement in online dating. This study uses semistructured interviews with 18 online daters aged 53 to 74 and 2 romance coaches to examine how aspects of their online expectations and experiences are shaped by age and gender. Analyses reveal that men seek committed relationships, whereas women desire companionship without demanding caring roles. Different barriers to dating increase the appeal of online strategies: Men face narrow social networks, while women face competition from younger women and friendship norms limiting the pool of eligible partners. Both genders screen for youthful characteristics and attempt to convey youthful images of themselves. Men’s criteria center on physical attractiveness, whereas women’s focus is on abilities. In constructing profiles, women focus on their looks and sociability and men on their financial and occupational successes.

Drawing on Stereotypes: Using Undergraduates' Sketches of Elders as a Teaching Tool

Using data collected from undergraduates at two large, public universities (N = 183), we examined features of student drawings (e.g., facial expressions) as reflections of dominant views of the elderly. Sketches depicted both negative (e.g., frailty) and positive stereotypes (e.g., kindness). They also illustrate gender inequality; for example, men are overrepresented in the drawings relative to their proportion in the elderly population. We discuss the use of student drawings as a tool to stimulate discussion on the social construction of “old age,” the double standard of aging, and the nature, origin, and consequences of ageism.