Anne Marte Pensgaard

International Olympic Committee consensus statement on youth athletic development

The health, fitness and other advantages of youth sports participation are well recognised. However, there are considerable challenges for all stakeholders involved—especially youth athletes—in trying to maintain inclusive, sustainable and enjoyable participation and success for all levels of individual athletic achievement. In an effort to advance a more unified, evidence-informed approach to youth athlete development, the IOC critically evaluated the current state of science and practice of youth athlete development and presented recommendations for developing healthy, resilient and capable youth athletes, while providing opportunities for all levels of sport participation and success. The IOC further challenges all youth and other sport governing bodies to embrace and implement these recommended guiding principles.

Cognitive activation theory of stress (CATS): From fish brains to the Olympics

The Cognitive Activation Theory of Stress (CATS) offers formal and systematic definitions of the terms and concepts used in stress research. The stress response depends on acquired expectancies to the outcome of the stimulus and the available responses. The stress response itself is an alarm, an increase in arousal necessary for performance and adequate reactions to challenges. The response is healthy and necessary for survival. Only when sustained over time may potential health risks occur. The basic rules for when stress occurs are the same across cultures and species, from fish to Olympic performance in humans. The important dimensions for health are positive expectancies of outcome (coping), control, and safety, for all individuals in all species.

Self-reported psychological characteristics as risk factors for injuries in female youth football

Identifying and understanding injury risk factors are necessary to target the injury‐prone athlete and develop injury prevention measurements. The influence of psychological factors on injuries in football is poorly documented. The purpose of this 8‐month prospective cohort study therefore was to examine whether psychological player characteristics assessed by a self‐administered questionnaire represent risk factors for injury. At baseline, female football players (14–16 years) were asked to complete a detailed questionnaire covering player history, previous injuries, perception of success and motivational climate, life stress, anxiety and coping strategies. During the 2005 season, a total of 1430 players were followed up to record injuries. A history of a previous injury [odds ratio (OR)=1.9 (1.4; 2.5), P<0.001] increased the risk of a new injury to the same region. There were significant differences in disfavor for previously injured compared with non‐injured players for ego orientation (P=0.007), perception of a performance climate (P=0.003) and experienced stressful life events (P<0.001). However, only high life stress (P=0.001) and perception of a mastery climate (P=0.03) were significant risk factors for new injuries. In conclusion, a perceived mastery climate and a high level of life stress were significant predictors for new injuries in a cohort of young female football players.

Preventing Eating Disorders among Young Elite Athletes: A Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE To examine the effect of a 1-yr school-based intervention program to prevent the development of new cases of eating disorders (ED) and symptoms associated with ED among adolescent female and male elite athletes. METHODS All 16 Norwegian Elite Sport High Schools were included (intervention group [n = 9] and control group [n = 7]). In total, 465 (93.8%) first-year student athletes were followed during high school (2008-2011, three school years). The athletes completed the Eating Disorder Inventory 2 and questions related to ED before (pretest), immediately after (posttest 1), and 9 months after the intervention (posttest 2). Clinical interviews (Eating Disorder Examination) were conducted after the pretest (all with symptoms [n = 115, 97%] and a random sample without symptoms [n = 116, 97%]), and at posttest 2, all athletes were interviewed (n = 463, 99.6%). RESULTS Among females, there were no new cases of ED in the intervention schools, while 13% at the control schools had developed and fulfilled the DSM-IV criteria for ED not otherwise specified (n = 7) or bulimia nervosa (n = 1), P = 0.001. The risk of reporting symptoms was lower in the intervention than in the control schools at posttest 1 (odds ratio [OR] = 0.45, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.23-0.89). This effect was attenuated by posttest 2 (OR = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.29-1.09). The intervention showed a relative risk reduction for current dieting (OR = 0.10, 95% CI = 0.02-0.54) and three or more weight loss attempts (OR = 0.47, 95% CI = 0.25-0.90). Among males, there was one new case of ED at posttest 2 (control school) and no difference in the risk of reporting symptoms between groups at posttest 1 or 2. CONCLUSION A 1-yr intervention program can prevent new cases of ED and symptoms associated with ED in adolescent female elite athletes.

Perceived ability and social support as mediators of achievement motivation and performance anxiety.

The present study is founded on achievement goal theory (AGT) and examines the relationship between motivation, social support and performance anxiety with team handball players (n=143) from 10 elite teams. Based on these theories and previous findings, the study has three purposes. First, it was predicted that the female athletes (n=69) would report more performance worries and more social support use than males (n=74). The findings support the hypothesis for anxiety, but not for social support use. However, females report that they felt social support was more available than males. Second, we predicted and found a positive relationship between the interaction of ego orientation and perceptions of a performance climate on performance anxiety, but only for females. As predicted, perceived ability mediated this relationship. Finally, we predicted that perceptions of a performance climate were related to the view that social support was less available especially for the male athletes. Simple correlation supports this prediction, but the regression analyses did not reach significance. Thus, we could not test for mediation of social support between motivational variables and anxiety. The results illustrate that fostering a mastery climate helps elite athletes tackle competitive pressure.

Higher psycho-physiological refinement in world-class Norwegian athletes: brain measures of performance capacity

This study tested the hypothesis that the degree of psycho‐physiological development is related to performance level in world‐class athletes. We compared physiological and psychological patterns of 33 Norwegian world‐class athletes to patterns in 33 average performing athletes. The subjects were matched for gender, age, and type of sport. Electroencephalography activity was recorded to measure brain integration; skin conductance was recorded to measure habituation to a loud stimulus; and paper‐and‐pencil tests were given to assess self‐development, moral development, and frequency of peak experiences. A factor analysis (varimax rotation) reduced the eight variables to three factors that together accounted for 65.3% of the total variance: (1) physiological integration – brain integration and habituation rates, (2) self‐ and moral development, and (3) peak experiences. A MANOVA conducted on the factor scores showed a significant main effect for the experimental group collapsing across the three factors (P<0.0001). Individual ANOVAs showed significantly higher values for development (P=0.021) and physiological integration (P<0.0001) factor scores for the world‐class athletes. The above measures can be seen as different expressions of an underlying dimension – human development. These data support the concept that higher psycho‐physiological growth underlies higher performance.

The Development of the Brief Eating Disorder in Athletes Questionnaire

PURPOSE The objective of this study is to design and validate a brief questionnaire able to discriminate between female elite athletes with and without an eating disorder (ED). METHODS In phase I, 221 (89.5%) adolescent athletes participated in a screening including the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2) and questions related to ED. All athletes reporting symptoms associated with ED (n = 96, 94.1%) and a random sample without symptoms (n = 88, 86.3%) attended the ED Examination Interview. On the basis of the screening, we extracted items with good predictive abilities for an ED diagnosis to the Brief ED in Athletes Questionnaire (BEDA-Q) versions 1 and 2. Version 1 consisted of seven items from the EDI-Body dissatisfaction, EDI-Drive for thinness, and questions regarding dieting. In version 2, two items from the EDI-Perfectionism subscale were added. In phase II, external predictive validity of version 1 was tested involving 54 age-matched elite athletes from an external data set. In phase III, predictive ability of posttest assessments was determined among athletes with no ED at pretest (n = 53, 100%). Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify predictors of ED. RESULTS Version 2 showed higher discriminative accuracy than version 1 in distinguishing athletes with and without an ED with a receiver operating characteristics area of 0.86 (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.78-0.93) compared with 0.83 (95% CI, 0.74-0.92). In phase II, the accuracy of version 1 was 0.77 (95% CI, 0.63-0.91). In predicting new cases, version 2 showed higher diagnostic accuracy than version 1 with a receiver operating characteristic area of 0.73 (98% CI, 0.52-0.93) compared with 0.70 (95% CI, 0.48-0.92). CONCLUSION The BEDA-Q containing nine items reveals good ability to distinguish between female elite athletes with and without an ED. The BEDA-Qs predictive ability should be tested in larger samples.

An examination of the factorial structure of the Norwegian version of the sport anxiety scale

The purpose of the present research was to develop and validate a Norwegian version of the sport anxiety scale (SAS‐N), a multidimensional sport performance trait anxiety inventory. The SAS consists of three unique dimensions measuring somatic anxiety, worry and concentration disruption, respectively. The translation–back translation method was used in development of the SAS‐N, and athletes from different sports in Norway (N=282) participated in the study. The findings are similar to those of the English original, and lend support for the use of this instrument with Norwegian athlete subjects.

Consulting under pressure: How to help an athlete deal with unexpected distracters during Olympic Games 2006

Abstract Norway has strong traditions when it comes to doing well in Winter Olympics. In 2002 in Salt Lake City, Norway became the best nation (i.e., most gold medals and overall points), and thus the expectations leading up to the 2006 Turin Games in Italy were high. The goal was 25 medals, although it ended up with 19. This was regarded as rather poor results among the Norwegian sports journalists. The evaluation following the Games revealed that illness and lack of mental preparations were two of the key factors to which the athletes attributed the disappointing results. To illustrate the dynamics during the Games and how the expectations and the mixed results influenced one of the athletes and also the work of the sport psychologist, a case is presented. The role of a nations collective efficacy and how it may influence the athletes is discussed, as well as the role of the coach as an important mediator regarding how an athlete may or may not cope during such circumstances

Mindfulness-Based Mental Training in a High-Performance Combat Aviation Population: A One-Year Intervention Study and Two-Year Follow-Up

This study tested the feasibility and value of mindfulness training (MT) in a Norwegian military combat aircraft squadron (n = 21). No objective measures of performance were included in this study. Subjective measures of mindfulness, mental skills, and performance-related anxiety were administered before and after the intervention, including a semistructured interview at the study’s conclusion after the intervention. Qualitative feedback and measures of mindfulness were collected via e-mail at 12 and 24 months during follow-up. During posttraining, there was a reduction in somatic anxiety related to performance and improvements in self-perceived skills associated with mindfulness, attention regulation, and arousal regulation. Mindfulness scores remained higher throughout the follow-up. Time-consuming plenary sessions and the amount of recommended, out-of-class training were found to be potential drawbacks of MT. Overall the findings indicate that MT might be a viable complement to existing mental training for high-performance populations.