Annette Hohenberger

Narrowing perceptual sensitivity to the native language in infancy: exogenous influences on developmental timing

The infancy literature situates the perceptual narrowing of speech sounds at around 10 months of age, but little is known about the mechanisms that influence individual differences in this developmental milestone. We hypothesized that such differences might in part be explained by characteristics of mother-child interaction. Infant sensitivity to syllables from their native tongue was compared longitudinally to sensitivity to non-native phonemes, at 6 months and again at 10 months. We replicated previous findings that at the group level, both 6- and 10- month-olds were able to discriminate contrasts in their native language, but only 6-month-olds succeeded in discriminating contrasts in the non-native language. However, when discrimination was assessed for separate groups on the basis of mother-child interaction—a ‘high contingency group’ and a ‘moderate contingency’ group—the vast majority of infants in both groups showed the expected developmental pattern by 10 months, but only infants in the ‘high contingency’ group showed early specialization for their native phonemes by failing to discriminate non-native contrasts at 6-months. The findings suggest that the quality of mother-child interaction is one of the exogenous factors influencing the timing of infant specialization for speech processing.

Constraints on the Timing of Infant Cognitive Change: Domain-Specific or Domain-General?

Most studies of infant cognition focus on group data from single domains. Yet, without the multidomain testing of the same infants longitudinally, such data cannot be used to evaluate whether the timing of cognitive change occurs in a domain-general or a domain-specific way. We present the results of a longitudinal study pooling data from three European laboratories set up identically. Over 100 healthy, monolingual infants each underwent multi-domain testing at 6 and again at 10 months in six experimental tasks (speech processing, face processing, and action/event processing), as well as a videotaped 3-minute recording of mother/infant dyads in a play session with an identical set of toys. Previous research examined the effects of maternal sensitivity only on general intelligence measures, but our approach is novel in that it assessed dyadic effects on specific cognitive domains, attempting to pinpoint in finer detail the effects of mother-infant dyadic interaction on the timing of cognitive change. Our findings highlight the importance of a multi-domain approach, in that unlike the assumptions drawn from cross-sectional data, our longitudinal study yielded different developmental timing across domains within the same infants. Our results also highlight a crucial difference: at the group level 6- and 10-month-olds display the expected effects found in previous research, but when re-analysed according to mother-child interaction ratings, the quality of dyadic interaction style turned out to subtly foster or delay development in domainspecific and age-specific ways, contributing to the range of individual differences in timing that we observe in cognitive development over the first year of life.

Language learning from the perspective of nonlinear dynamic systems

Abstract This article outlines a nonlinear dynamic systems approach to language learning on the basis of developmental cognitive neuroscience. Language learning, on this view, is a process of experience-dependent shaping and selection of broadly defined domain-general and domain-specific genetic predispositions. The central concept of development is (neuro)cognitive growth in terms of self-organization. Linguistic structure-building is synergetic and emergent insofar as the acquisition of a critical mass of elements on a local level (e.g., words) results in the emergence of novel qualities and units on a macroscopic level (e.g., syntax). We argue that language development does not take a linear path but comes in phases of intermittent turbulence, fluctuation, and stability, along a “chaotic itinerary”. We review qualitative, quantitative and computational applications of this concept in the lexical, morphological, and syntactic domain. We identify as the most significant property of the dynamic approach the temporal nature of language learning. As a medium-term forecast we anticipate a further diversification of the dynamic approach, an increase in more formal approaches, and a stronger interest in issues of embodiment and embeddedness.

Functional Categories and Language Acquisition: Self-Organization of a Dynamical System.

This study investigates the acquisition of Functional Categories from the perspective of self-organization. Syntax emerges through a major bifurcation of the dynamical language system. Dynamical notions such as precursor, oscillation, symmetry-breaking, and trigger are explanatory tools for the dynamics of early child language as evidenced in the acquisition of compounding, case-marking, finiteness, V2, wh-questions, etc. The book addresses researchers from various theoretical camps: generative, functional, connectionist, by giving new answers to old questions in the light of a novel challenging theory: self-organization.

Understanding goal-directed human actions and physical causality: The role of mother-infant interaction

This study addresses the relation between early cognitive development and mother-infant interaction. Infants at the age of 6 and 10 months recruited from labs in three European countries--Germany, Great Britain, and France--were tested on two cognitive tasks: understanding of goal-directed human action and physical causality. Mother-infant interaction was assessed with the CARE-Index. In the goal-directed action task, the overall sample of the 6-month olds did not yet reliably discriminate between an object-change and a path-change trial while a subsample of infants of modestly controlling mothers did. All infants at 10 months of age showed discrimination. In the physical causality task, the overall sample of the 6-month olds did not yet reliably discriminate between an expected and an unexpected launching event. At 10 months of age, the overall sample showed discrimination, due to the major subsample of infants of highly sensitive mothers. Our findings support the view that exogenous factors influence cognitive development within a particular time window, in highly specific ways, depending on the age of the subjects, the cognitive domain, and the quality of mother-infant interaction.

Early Understanding of Normativity and Freedom to Act in Turkish Toddlers

Two studies investigated young 2- and 3-year-old Turkish childrens developing understanding of normativity and freedom to act in games. As expected, children, especially 3-year-olds, protested more when there was a norm violation than when there was none. Surprisingly, however, no decrease in normative protest was observed even when the actor violated the norms due to a physical constraint, and not due to unwillingness. The increase in helping responses in this case lends support to the idea that at these ages, children could not yet incorporate an actors freedom to act in line with his will as they respond to norm transgressions. The results of the two studies are discussed in the light of two general research issues: a) the importance of cross-cultural research, and b) the interaction of the cognitive system with the emotional-empathic system in development.

Introduction: concepts of development, learning, and acquisition

‘Learning’, in a very broad sense of cognitive psychology, is defined as ‘‘a relatively permanent change in an organism’s potential for responding that results from prior experience or practice’’ (Gordon 1989: 6). This special issue will deal with learning in a more narrow sense, with learning in human beings and, more specifically, with language learning. Due to its association with early behaviorism, ‘language learning’ has long been a frowned upon notion. It was substituted with the term ‘language acquisition’ by researchers with a generativist agenda. In opposition to the empiricist tradition, they established new notions along with a new linguistic paradigm — generative grammar. ‘Learning’ has not only been largely banned from the linguistic literature but it has also received less attention in cognitive psychology, due to the ‘‘cognitive revolution’’ (Baars 1986) instigated by Chomsky (1957, 1959). One of the consequences of this paradigmatic turn was that new information processing models emphasized knowledge representation and de-emphasized the learning process (Glaser 1990; Reber 1993: 4). In this special issue, we take a fresh look at the old controversy in the light of novel and challenging approaches which have arrived recently in the field — implicit modes of learning, bootstrapping, optimality theory, connectionism, usage-based and emergentist approaches, self-organizing and dynamic systems. In this introductory paper we will set the scene for the articles to come: In Section 1 we will start out with a clarification of basic terms like development, learning, and acquisition. 2 In Section 2 we will briefly recapitulate the various stages in the debate between rationalists and empiricists up to now. In Sections 3 and 4 more recent approaches will be characterized before, in Section 5, the outline of the special issue including the individual papers will be summarized.

The word in sign language: empirical evidence and theoretical controversies

Abstract This article is concerned with the “word” in sign language, the “grammatical” and especially the “prosodic word”. Both notions of the “word” are central in sign language linguistics and psycholinguistic. Converging evidence for the size and complexity of the prosodic word is reviewed, stemming from morphological processes such as compounding, derivation, and classification as well as from phonological processes such as coalescence, epenthesis, and deletion. Additional evidence from slips of the hand and their repairs is presented showing that (i) in slips, grammatical as well as prosodic words are involved and that (ii) slip-repair sequences may keep within the limit of the prosodic word. The distinctive morphological typology and the canonical word shape pattern in sign language is explained by modality differences which act on the Phonetic Form (PF) interface. Sign languages are processed more on the vertical axis — simultaneously — whereas spoken languages are processed more on the horizontal axis — sequentially. As a corollary, the information packaging in both language modalities is different while processing is basically the same. Controversial theoretic topics around the notion of the “word” in sign language such as iconicity and notoriously recalcitrant constructions such as classifier predicates are discussed.

Syntactic Recursion Facilitates and Working Memory Predicts Recursive Theory of Mind

In this study, we focus on the possible roles of second-order syntactic recursion and working memory in terms of simple and complex span tasks in the development of second-order false belief reasoning. We tested 89 Turkish children in two age groups, one younger (4;6–6;5 years) and one older (6;7–8;10 years). Although second-order syntactic recursion is significantly correlated with the second-order false belief task, results of ordinal logistic regressions revealed that the main predictor of second-order false belief reasoning is complex working memory span. Unlike simple working memory and second-order syntactic recursion tasks, the complex working memory task required processing information serially with additional reasoning demands that require complex working memory strategies. Based on our results, we propose that children’s second-order theory of mind develops when they have efficient reasoning rules to process embedded beliefs serially, thus overcoming a possible serial processing bottleneck.

The cognitive bases of the development of past and future episodic cognition in preschoolers

The aim of this study was to use a minimalist framework to examine the joint development of past and future episodic cognition and their underlying cognitive abilities in 3- to 5-year-old Turkish preschoolers. Participants engaged in two main tasks, a what-where-when (www) task to measure episodic memory and a future prediction task to measure episodic future thinking. Three additional tasks were used for predicting childrens performance in the two main tasks: a temporal language task, an executive function task, and a spatial working memory task. Results indicated that past and future episodic tasks were significantly correlated with each other even after controlling for age. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that, after controlling for age, the www task was predicted by executive functions, possibly supporting binding of episodic information and by linguistic abilities. The future prediction task was predicted by linguistic abilities alone, underlining the importance of language for episodic past and future thinking.