Ansgar Lamersdorf

A Survey on the State of the Practice in Distributed Software Development: Criteria for Task Allocation

The allocation of tasks can be seen as a success-critical management activity in distributed development projects. However, such task allocation is still one of the major challenges in global software development due to an insufficient understanding of the criteria that influence task allocation decisions. This article presents a qualitative study aimed at identifying and understanding such criteria that are used in practice. Based on interviews with managers from selected software development organizations, criteria currently applied in industry are identified. One important result is, for instance, that the sourcing strategy and the type of software to be developed have a significant effect on the applied criteria. The article presents the goals, design, and results of the study as well as an overview of related and future work.

Towards a Multi-criteria Development Distribution Model: An Analysis of Existing Task Distribution Approaches

Distributing development tasks in the context of global software development bears both many risks and many opportunities. Nowadays, distributed development is often driven by only a few factors or even just a single factor such as workforce costs. Risks and other relevant factors such as workforce capabilities, the innovation potential of different regions, or cultural factors are often not recognized sufficiently. This could be improved by using empirically-based multi-criteria distribution models. Currently, there is a lack of such decision models for distributing software development work. This article focuses on mechanisms for such decision support. First, requirements for a distribution model are formulated based on needs identified from practice. Then, distribution models from different domains are surveyed, compared, and analyzed in terms of suitability. Finally, research questions and directions for future work are given.

A multi-criteria distribution model for global software development projects

The allocation of development tasks to sites is one of the most important activities in the management of global software development projects. Its various influences on the risks and benefits of distributed projects require careful consideration of multiple allocation criteria in a systematic way. In practice, however, work is often allocated based on only one single criterion such as cost, and defined processes or algorithms for task allocation are typically not used. Existing research approaches mainly focus on selected aspects such as the minimization of cross-site communication and are difficult to adapt to specific environments. This article presents a customizable multi-criteria model for task allocation in global software development projects. Based on an analysis of the state of the practice, a set of requirements was derived and used for evaluating existing task allocation models from different domains. The Bokhari algorithm was identified as a suitable starting point and modified with respect to the fulfillment of the requirements. The modification includes the development of mechanisms for customization, the incorporation of cause-effect relationships, and the use of probabilistic modeling of uncertainty with Bayesian networks. The application of the model is demonstrated in different scenarios that represent typical hypothetical and real distribution decision problems in industrial contexts. Experience from applying the model to such problems has shown, for instance, that depending on the weight of different criteria, very different task distributions will result. This demonstrates, in consequence, the need for systematic multi-criteria task allocation support in global software development.

A Decision Model for Supporting Task Allocation Processes in Global Software Development

Today, software-intensive systems are increasingly being developed in a globally distributed way. However, besides its benefit, global development also bears a set of risks and problems. One critical factor for successful project management of distributed software development is the allocation of tasks to sites, as this is assumed to have a major influence on the benefits and risks. We introduce a model that aims at improving management processes in globally distributed projects by giving decision support for task allocation that systematically regards multiple criteria. The criteria and causal relationships were identified in a literature study and refined in a qualitative interview study. The model uses existing approaches from distributed systems and statistical modeling. The article gives an overview of the problem and related work, introduces the empirical and theoretical foundations of the model, and shows the use of the model in an example scenario.

Estimating the Effort Overhead in Global Software Development

Models for effort and cost estimation are important for distributed software development as well as for collocated software and system development. Standard cost models only insufficiently consider the characteristics of distributed development such as dissimilar abilities at the different sites or significant overhead due to remote collaboration. Therefore, explicit cost models for distributed development are needed. In this article, we present the initial development of a cost overhead model for a Spanish global software development organization. The model was developed using the CoBRA approach for cost estimation. As a result, cost drivers for the specific distributed development context were identified and their impact was quantified on an empirical basis. The article presents related work, an overview of the approach, and its application in the industrial context. Finally, we sketch the inclusion of the model in an approach for systematic task allocation and give an overview of future work.

TAMRI: A Tool for Supporting Task Distribution in Global Software Development Projects

The distribution of tasks to sites is one central activity in global software development project planning. Due to the large number of assignment possibilities, tool support seems to be adequate for supporting the evaluation and selection of task assignments. We present TAMRI, a planning tool for identifying task assignments based on multiple criteria and weighted project goals. Its implementation combines a distributed systems approach with Bayesian networks. The tool can be adapted to specific organizational environments by exchanging the underlying Bayesian network. The article presents an overview of task distribution approaches, gives three application scenarios for the tool, and shows the implementation of the tool as well as its application in the scenarios.

A rule-based model for customized risk identification and evaluation of task assignment alternatives in distributed software development projects

Distributed software development imposes new project risks that are very different from the ones in collocated development and are overlooked easily. At the same time, they depend to a large extent on project‐specific characteristics. Therefore, new methods for identifying these risks in distributed projects have to be developed. This article presents a model for identifying these risks at the beginning of a project. The model systematically captures experiences from past projects in a set of logical rules describing how project characteristics influence typical risks in distributed development. Thus, it is able to assess risks individually for each project. In addition, the model can be used for evaluating different task assignment alternatives, which makes it possible to allocate tasks systematically. An instance of the model was developed by applying qualitative content analysis to 19 interviews with practitioners. An evaluation using expert interviews showed that the risks identified by the model matched the actual experiences in 81% of the cases; of these, 40% had not been regarded at project start. Copyright

A Risk-Driven Model for Work Allocation in Global Software Development Projects

Risks and potential benefits of distributing software development projects globally depend to a large extent on how to allocate work to different development sites and regions. Existing methods in task allocation are likely to omit the relevance of considering a multitude of criteria and the impact of task distribution on risks and potential benefits. To assess risks stemming from specific work distributions and to exploit organization-specific experience, we have developed a customizable risk-driven model. It consists of two main steps: Suggesting a set of task allocation alternatives based on project- and site-specific characteristics and analyzing it with respect to possible project risks stemming from the work distribution. To evaluate the model, we conducted a series of semi-structured interviews in a multinational IT company. The results of the evaluation show that the suggestions of the model mostly comply with the retrospective views voiced by the involved experienced managers.

A Rule-Based Model for Customized Risk Identification in Distributed Software Development Projects

Many project risks in distributed software development are very different from the ones in collocated development and therefore are often overlooked. At the same time, they depend to a large extent on project-specific characteristics. This article presents a model for identifying risks early in a project. This model systematically captures experiences from past projects and is based on a set of logical rules describing how project characteristics influence typical risks in distributed development. Thus, the model is able to assess risks individually for each project. It was developed by applying qualitative content analysis to 19 interviews with practitioners. An evaluation using expert interviews showed that the risks identified by the model matched the actual experiences in 81% of the cases; of these, 40% have not been regarded yet at project start. The article describes the concepts of the model, its instantiation and evaluation, followed by a conclusion and future work.

Systematic Task Allocation Evaluation in Distributed Software Development

Systematic task allocation to different development sites in global software development projects can open business and engineering perspectives and help to reduce risks and problems inherent in distributed development. Relying only on a single evaluation criterion such as development cost when distributing tasks to development sites has shown to be very risky and often does not lead to successful solutions in the long run. Task allocation in global software projects is challenging due to a multitude of impact factors and constraints. Systematic allocation decisions require the ability to evaluate and compare task allocation alternatives and to effectively establish customized task allocation practices in an organization. In this article, we present a customizable process for task allocation evaluation that is based on results from a systematic interview study with practitioners. In this process, the relevant criteria for evaluating task allocation alternatives are derived by applying principles from goal-oriented measurement. In addition, the customization of the process is demonstrated, related work and limitations are sketched, and an outlook on future work is given.