Anthony A. Clarke

A co-operative computer based on the principles of human co-operation

Abstract Co-operation is presented as a technique for radically improving human-computer interaction with complex knowledge bases during problem-identifying and problem-solving tasks. A study of human-human co-operation literature indicated the importance of creating an environment where the refinement of solutions can be based on argument and the resolution of differing viewpoints, as it is through this interaction that the nature of the problem is revealed. To bring about such an environment, the work identified and created three mechanisms now considered to be central to human-computer co-operation; goal-oriented working (GOW), an agreed definition knowledge base (ADKB), and a model which, using problem-domain rules, stimulates the interaction between the user and the machine: the partner model (PM). To identify the requirements of the co-operative machine more completely, a software exemplar was constructed, using the task metaphor of spatial design. The result of the work is the implementation of a machine software architecture which demonstrates the functioning of co-operation. This co-operative computer, its evaluators believe, supports a user-machine interaction having a totally new and different quality. The machine architecture and software tools and techniques developed in the work can form the foundation for building future co-operative systems.

A three-level human-computer interface model

Abstract A unified abstract model of the human-computer interface is presented. Examples from the existing literature that support various aspects of the model are offered. Some other models of the human-computer interface are discussed. The model is used to examine an existing workstation interface. The outcome of the examination is a structured series of questions that could form the basis for a future interface requirement. The potential productivity, application, and development of the model are identified.

Field evaluation of a prototype laser safety decision support system

Abstract A field evaluation of a decision support system prototype is described. The system is designed to aid the decision making of laser safety hazard assessors and laser manufacturers. The aims of the evaluation were to establish the usefulness and usability of the system, and to indicate where design changes might be needed. Three complementary methods namely observation evaluation, expert evaluation, and survey evaluation were used. Fifteen laser safety hazard assessors took part in the evaluation as subjects. Objective and subjective data were analysed and areas of user difficulty with the system were identified. The system was well-received although some pointers to modification for the eventual delivery system were identified. It is concluded that the aims of the evaluation were successfully met.

Lasers and laser applications in the 1990s: A survey of laser safety schemes

Abstract A survey of the status of laser safety in UK laser companies is reported. UK laser manufacturers/suppliers were questioned on the types of laser sold, their application and about their laser safety schemes. Nearly two-thirds of suppliers produce lasers in the Class IIIB and IV categories, i.e. those requiring the highest level of safety precautions. However, just under half the companies had difficulties in implementing the current UK laser safety standards (BS 7192/IEC 825). A case is demonstrated for a mechanism providing practical advice on implementation of these standards. This is further strengthened by comparison of a survey carried out five years ago indicating a similar number of manufacturers with difficulties.

Laser safety: The user's problems and requirements for the solutions

Abstract The findings of an interview programme carried out with a representative sample of the UK laser community in order to establish their problems and requirements with regard to laser safety is reported. The sample comprised laser manufacturers, laser users and inspectors of the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE). The results indicated that 80% of interviewees had experienced problems in using the current UK Laser Safety Standards. The usefulness of these Standards is reduced when the broader laser user community is considered. Analysis of user requirements highlighted the importance of laser application-orientated laser safety material and training. Some areas of laser safety were identified as requiring further investigation.

Laser safety hazard assessment: a generic model

Abstract The status of laser safety amongst UK manufacturers is reported. A disturbing proportion feel the need for practical guidance on laser safety issues. Furthermore no improvements in laser safety protocols in the past 5 years are evident. Closer studies of the much larger laser user community and also the HSE Inspectorate has revealed a matrix of issues pertinent to users and their laser application. A need to support the user with practical information is demonstrated. Laser safety research activities have investigated the task of hazard assessment and a novel ‘Loughborough Laser Hazard Assessment Model’ has been defined and tested. The model provides a general methodology for hazard assessment and, furthermore, is the kernel of an advisory software system. The methodical approach to hazard assessment can be extended to risk assessment processes in laser and non-laser related activities.

A Language of Cooperation

Cooperation is important in small-group problem solving. It is characterized by certain behavioral features: for example, it is a goal-directed act, involving a common goal or goals, and it exhibits underlying dynamic processes, chief of which is communication. An important medium of communication is language, and it has been proposed that there may be a form of language that is characteristic of cooperation (Clarke and Smyth 1993), since there are specialized languages-in-action’ which have, for example, a vocabulary that is different, relative to its parent language (Sumby 1976). To examine this proposal, we made a linguistic analysis of the dialogs between experimental subjects in the ROCOCO research project which is described in Section 6.1.2. We also analyzed the subjects’ progression in their common tasks, and other indicators, for evidence that cooperation was taking place.