Anthony I. Reeder

Using accelerometers and GPS units to identify the proportion of daily physical activity located in parks with playgrounds in New Zealand children

OBJECTIVE To identify the proportion of childrens physical activity occurring in public parks with playgrounds. METHODS Children (n=184) aged 5 to 10 years were recruited from schools located in two low socio-economic status communities in Dunedin, New Zealand. Accelerometers (Actigraph GT1M) and global positioning system units (Globalsat DG-100) were used to quantify and identify where physical activity had occurred over a 7-day period. Cross-sectional data were collected October to December 2007 (southern hemisphere spring) and the childs height and weight were measured at school. RESULTS At least 84% of participants had accelerometer and global positioning system data available for five or more hourly periods per day, for at least 4 days. Overall, 1.9% of recorded activity took place at city parks (95% confidence interval: 1.4, 2.4), although this was 2.7% (95% confidence intervals: 0.7, 4.6) among obese children. CONCLUSIONS Accelerometers and GPS data was able to be successfully recorded and matched among this age group. The proportion of childrens activity taking place in parks with playgrounds was low, although this may still be important for some subgroups.

THE NEW ZEALAND GRADUATED DRIVER LICENSING SYSTEM: TEENAGERS' ATTITUDES TOWARDS AND EXPERIENCES WITH THIS CAR DRIVER LICENSING SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the attitudes of teenagers towards the New Zealand graduated driver licensing system (GDLS), and the extent to which it affected them. METHOD: Teenagers, who are members of a longitudinal study of a birth cohort, were interviewed at 15 years of age when the GDLS was first introduced and before they had begun licensure, and again at 18 years of age after they had experience with this licensing system. RESULTS: At both ages the majority (over 70%) agreed with the driving restrictions imposed by this system. After experience with the restrictions, however, significantly more reported being affected a lot by them, than had expected to be at age 15. This was especially true of the restrictions on the carrying of passengers and the night time curfew (10 pm - 5 am). However, few reported that they were affected by the alcohol restriction. Sixty eight per cent of those with a graduated licence reported breaking at least one of the conditions, most frequently carrying passengers. Very few were penalised by the police for this. CONCLUSIONS: Generally these young drivers were positively disposed towards the driving restrictions, but noncompliance was common. A full evaluation of all aspects of this licensing system is recommended.

The risky and protective motorcycling opinions and behaviours of young on-road motorcyclists in New Zealand

This research documented the frequency of protective and risky motorcycling opinions and behaviours and investigated whether these opinions and behaviours were more frequently expressed by licensed than unlicensed riders and by riders with high rather than low exposure to motorcycling. Areas where there was scope for improvement were identified to help guide the promotion of protective strategies. As part of a broader study of a birth cohort, 217 18 year old motorcyclists were administered a motorcycling computer questionnaire. Evidence of positive protective opinions was found, but there was considerable scope for behavioural improvements. While 92% had worn a helmet, optimal protection was reported less frequently for other body areas: most often for the feet (54%), hands (47%) and upper body (35%) and least often for the legs (8%). Most (87%) riders considered conspicuity increased safety, 68% favoured mandatory day-time headlight use, and 66% used dipped headlights in day-time. While 55% favoured mandatory wearing of high-visibility clothing, only 15% of day-time and 20% of night-time riders reported doing this. During the past month, 16% had driven within two hours of drinking alcohol and 6% when too tired to be fully in control. Overall, 22% had been penalized for a motorcycle driving offence, most often speeding. While 46% said they agreed with the Graduated Driver Licensing System (GDLS), most licensed under that system reported breaking licence conditions and most were not apprehended. Licensed motorcyclists were significantly more likely than the unlicensed to favour mandatory day-time headlight usage, report using dipped headlights in day-time, and wear better protection for the head, upper body and hands, but were also more likely to report drinking and driving and traffic convictions--probably because of their greater exposure. Other, non-significant, results were in the same direction, except that fewer licensed than unlicensed riders were in favour of mandatory high visibility clothing or the GDLS. A similar pattern of more protective attitudes and behaviours was found for high rather than low exposure riders, though it was generally weaker, and high exposure was associated with drinking and driving, driving while tired and traffic convictions. The issues of representativeness and reliability are discussed and some implications for public policies towards motorcycling by young people are considered. Further research is recommended in order to determine which are the best predictors of motorcycling opinions and behaviours: personal characteristics, the formal training associated with licensure, or exposure to motorcycling.

Solar UVR Exposure, Concurrent Activities and Sun-Protective Practices Among Primary Schoolchildren

Comprehensive measures of ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure, concurrent activities and sun‐protective practices are needed to develop and evaluate skin cancer prevention and sun protection interventions. The UVR exposures of 345 primary schoolchildren at 23 schools around New Zealand were measured using electronic UVR monitors for 1‐week periods over 12 weeks in 2004 and 2005. In addition, ambient UVR levels on a horizontal surface were measured on‐site at each school. Children completed activity diaries during the period UVR measurements were made and provided information on their indoor and outdoor status and clothing and sun protection worn. Mean total daily UVR exposure (7:00–20:00 h NZST + 1) at the body location where the UVR monitors were worn was 0.9 SED (standard erythemal dose, 1 SED = 100 J m−2). This was 4.9% of the ambient UVR on a horizontal surface. Mean time spent outdoors was 2.3 h day−1. Differences in children’s UVR exposure could be explained in part by activity, where outdoor passive pursuits were associated with higher UVR exposure rates than outdoor active and outdoor travel pursuits. Compared with older children, the activities of younger children, although labeled the same, resulted in different UVR exposures, either as a result of reporting differences or a real difference in UVR exposure patterns. UVR exposure rates were generally higher on weekdays compared with the weekend, confirming the important role of school sun protection and skin cancer prevention programs. High UVR exposure activities included physical education, athletics and lunch break.

Association of 25‐Hydroxyvitamin D3 Levels in Adult New Zealanders with Ethnicity, Skin Color and Self‐Reported Skin Sensitivity to Sun Exposure

The study aim was to determine the contribution of ethnicity, objectively measured skin color and skin reaction‐to‐sun exposure to variations in 25‐hydroxyvitamin D3 [25(OH)D3]. A multiethnic sample (European, Maori, Pacific and Asian) of 503 adult volunteers aged 18–85 years, recruited from Auckland and Dunedin in New Zealand, answered a questionnaire on sun exposure and self‐defined ethnicity. Skin color was measured using a spectrophotometer and the Individual Typology Angle (ITA) calculated. A blood sample was collected 4 weeks later to measure 25(OH)D3. 25(OH)D3 was associated with ethnicity, but not self‐reported skin reaction‐to‐sun exposure. Amongst the ethnic groups, Asians had the lowest mean 25(OH)D level (37.0 nmol L−1) and Europeans with lighter colored skin had the highest (57.9 nmol L−1). An association also was seen between 25(OH)D3 and skin color, with an increase of 2–3 nmol L−1 per 10° increase in ITA value, indicating higher 25(OH)D3 with lighter skin color; but much of this association disappeared after adjusting for ethnicity. In contrast, ethnicity remained associated with 25(OH)D3 after adjusting for ITA skin color and skin reaction‐to‐sun exposure. These results indicate that self‐defined ethnicity was a major determinant of variations in serum 25(OH)D3, while objective measures of skin color explained relatively little additional variation.

Associations Between Frequent Headaches, Persistent Smoking, and Attempts to Quit

Background.— Recent studies have found a strong relationship between tobacco smoking and headache pain. It remains unclear whether smoking behavior leads to headache or visa versa, mainly due to the cross‐sectional nature of the majority of this research.

Youth Solar Ultraviolet Radiation Exposure, Concurrent Activities and Sun-protective Practices: A Review

Abstract To assist standardization of procedures, facilitate comparisons, and help guide research efforts to optimally inform development of appropriately targeted interventions, there is a need to review methods used to quantify child and adolescent solar ultraviolet radiation (UV) exposure, related outdoor activities and sun-protective practices. This holistic approach is essential for comprehensive research that will provide all-inclusive, informative and meaningful messages for preventive measures of harmful UV exposure. Two databases were searched and 29 studies were retrieved, and these studies report measurement or assessment techniques documenting UV exposure patterns and related outdoor activities. Polysulfone film badges were the main measurement instrument used in 10 studies, with questionnaire, survey data, observation, a model, electronic dosimeters, biological dosimeters, colorimeter and UV colouring labels used in the remaining studies. Methods used to record activities included self-report, parental report, a logbook and observation. Measurement duration and unit of UV exposure varied in most studies, but a method common to 15 studies was measured UV exposure as a percentage of ambient UV. The studies reviewed do not provide sufficient information for the development and evaluation of targeted youth sun protection programs. Studies are required which document precise UV exposure, concurrent activities and sun protection usage for children and adolescents.

Worlds apart: a comparison between physical activities among youth in Glasgow, Scotland and Dunedin, New Zealand.

Against the background of increasing concern about levels of physical activity among young people, this paper reports the results of a cross-national comparison between two longitudinal studies of young people in Glasgow, Scotland and Dunedin, New Zealand, which used similar methods of assessment at 15 and 18 years of age. The comparison revealed that, on average, young people in Dunedin participated in a greater range of activities, encompassing both organised sports and informal activities such as cycling, and with greater frequency than those in Glasgow at both ages, but particularly so at age 18. The difference was especially marked for females, among whom one in three in Glasgow reported no physical activity at all at age 18. By contrast, in both sexes among those who did participate, much less difference in levels of involvement was observed between the two locations. Of 35 activities, only in respect of soccer, and only for males, did participation and involvement in Glasgow exceed that of Dunedin. Neither climatic factors, natural features of the environment, socio-economic composition, nor different proportions in single-sex/co-educational schooling explain the difference in levels of participation between the two locations. Participation rates in selected physical activities do, however, reflect different opportunity structures in Dunedin and Glasgow, with an advantage accruing to the former in respect of both school and post-school provision. Cultural factors, which underpin such differences, also appear to have an additional influence on participation, most notably in relation to the gender gap in physical activities, much bigger in Glasgow than Dunedin. To redress these differences requires an increase in levels of participation generally, particularly among females, which depends as much on a shift in values about physical activity as on the provision of better resources.

Child sun protection: sun-related attitudes mediate the association between children's knowledge and behaviours.

Aim:  To describe and investigate the relationship among the sun‐related knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of New Zealand primary schoolchildren and consider the roles of sex and school year level.

Motorcycle crashes in New Zealand resulting in death and hospitalisation. i: Introduction methods and overview

Relative to car crashes motorcycle crashes have received relatively little attention by the research community. This is the first in a series of three papers describing the epidemiology of motorcycle crashes resulting in death and hospitalisation in New Zealand. This paper describes the methods used for the study, provides an overview of all crashes, and, in particular, compares traffic crashes with nontraffic crashes. The source of the fatality data was national mortality data files for the years 1978 to 1987 inclusive. The source of the hospitalisation data was a national morbidity file, which records all public hospital discharges in New Zealand. A total of 1,175 motorcyclist fatalities were identified for the period 1978-1987, resulting in a mortality rate of 3.6 per 100,000 persons per year. A total of 2,623 motorcycle crash victims were hospitalised in 1988 resulting in a hospitalisation rate of 80.4 per 100,000 persons per year. Males, especially those 15-24 years of age had very high mortality (26-27) and morbidity rates (464-462). Motor vehicle traffic crashes represented 96% of the fatalities and 85% of the hospitalisations. Drivers were the victims in 88% of fatalities and 86% of hospitalisations. For hospitalised victims the leading injuries were to the lower limb (43%) and head (24%). Whereas 29% of the traffic crashes were AIS-3 or higher the comparable figure for nontraffic crashes was 19%. There has been a significant linear increase in the fatality rate between 1978 and 1988 but no comparable trend in hospitalisations.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)