Anwei Feng

Culture and language learning: teaching, research and scholarship

This review of work on the cultural dimension of language teaching updates one from 1986 and shows that there has been a considerable growth in interest since then. The focus has been largely on the elaboration of conceptual models and theories and the development of teaching and training approaches; much less effort has been devoted to empirical research investigating the impact of such developments and building up a body of knowledge.

Bilingualism for the Minor or the Major? An Evaluative Analysis of Parallel Conceptions in China.

This paper is an analysis of two conceptions of bilingualism that exist in parallel in China. One is traditional bilingualism referring to the use of a native minority language and standard Chinese by minority groups and the other, seen as bilingualism with modern characteristics, is a modern-day phenomenon in which the majority Han group aspire to produce bilinguals with a strong competence in mother tongue Chinese and a foreign language, primarily English, by using Chinese and the foreign language as mediums of instruction in teaching school subjects. The focus of the analysis is on the latter for the simple reason that current literature on the new phenomenon is mostly available only in Chinese. An equally important aim of this paper is to explore the impact of the new phenomenon on minority education and to examine the reason why this impact is largely ignored in bilingualism discussions, despite obvious consequences with respect to ethnic identity, personality development and academic performance of minority students. Thus, the traditional conception is briefly reviewed at the start.

A comparison of trilingual education policies for ethnic minorities in China

In recent decades, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) has instigated language policies in education ostensibly designed to foster trilingualism in ethnic minority groups. The policies, which, as this paper shows, vary from region to region, encompass the minority groups home language, Chinese, and English. Based on data arising from interviews, documentary analysis and secondary sources, this paper examines the tensions behind these trilingual education policies by comparing the implementation of policies for three minority groups: the Zhuang, the Uyghur and the Yi people. It identifies some of the facilitators and barriers that affect the achievement of trilingualism, and finds that ethnic minority languages are at a disadvantage compared with Chinese and English. The paper concludes by making some suggestions for enhancing the effectiveness of the trilingualism policy.

Analysing language education policy for China's minority groups in its entirety

Abstract Two main bodies of literature are identifiable in minority education policy studies in China. Many adopt a descriptive approach to examining policy documents and general outcomes in their historical contexts while others focus on evaluating preferential policies made to address inequality issues in minority education. In most discussions, educators and scholars analyse or speculate about rationale behind minority education policies promulgated by governments at various levels in different periods. Rare attempts are made to develop a conceptual framework to make it possible to analyse the policy process in its entirety. Scholars and educators have seldom defined the relevant actors of a policy, to relate the policy to issues concerning these actors in the matrix of the social hierarchy, and to evaluate how policy outcomes feed back into the policy making and implementation cycle. This paper proposes an analytical framework that addresses these issues on the basis of a comparative analysis of recent literature on bi/trilingual education policies, official policy documents for minority groups and their implementation. The comparative overview is complemented by three case studies in three regions where empirical data were collected.

Spread of English across Greater China

Abstract Greater China is used in this article to refer to mainland China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and Macao. While a holistic approach is adopted to present and compare the rapid spread of English and development in English language education in these geographically close, and sociopolitically, culturally and economically interrelated but hugely different societies, an emphasis is placed on mainland China owing to its size and diversity of its population. Through describing and juxtaposing English language use and education, this article unfolds the stories of the spread of English in these societies in the past few decades. It draws on the research data and discussions included in the authors recent book English language education across Greater China, with evidence and findings from other recent publications. On the basis of these discussions, this article critiques the frequently cited models and notions used to describe the spread of English in post-modern societies. It argues that there is a need to come up with new conceptual models in order to catch the essence of the phenomena in the contemporary societies.

Models for Trilingual Education in the People’s Republic of China

Since 2002, the People’s Republic of China has instigated a variety of language policies in education ostensibly designed to foster trilingualism in ethnic minority groups. This chapter reports the findings of a project studying the implementation of trilingual education policies (covering the ethnic minority language, Chinese and English) in Yunnan, Sichuan, Guangxi, Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Jilin, Gansu, Guizhou, Qinghai and Tibet. The study identifies four models of trilingual education—accretive, balanced, transitional and depreciative—that have emerged in the different regions, and explores reasons for the various manifestations. While there appears to be consensus among key stakeholders regarding the potential benefits of trilingual education, the differences in the four models reveal tensions in the context of policy implementation.

Identity, ‘acting interculturally’ and aims for bilingual education: an example from China

Abstract In major texts on bilingualism and bilingual education, one often finds such notions as biculturalism, multiculturalism, pluralism or interculturalism that are used interchangeably as concepts – as opposed to monoculturalism or cultural assimilation – to address political and sociocultural dimensions in language learning and teaching. Recently, some scholars have begun to make distinctions between them as processes or outcomes of bilingual education. They compare the terms conceptually and evaluate the implications these concepts might have for bilingual education. The notion of ‘acting interculturally’, for example, is such an attempt that aims to shed light on the conceptual perplexity between being bicultural and being intercultural and to argue for learning outcomes that are attainable and desirable in bilingual education. On the basis of an overview of conceptual discussions on these notions and an analysis of key guiding ideas and research on bilingual education in China, this paper argues that a conceptual distinction between these terms is not only necessary for advancing theories of bilingualism in general but also crucial for addressing multifaceted issues in bilingual education, including sociopolitical concerns, in a country like China whose language education policies and curricula are determined by the governments political agenda for maintaining an unwavering state.

Trilingualism in Education: Models and Challenges

This concluding chapter discusses a number of themes emerging from the book, in order to present a consolidated view of trilingualism in education in China. It presents a detailed discussion of the four models of trilingual education identified in earlier chapters—the Accretive, Balanced, Transitional and Depreciative Models, and argues that the Accretive and Balanced Models of trilingual education possess substantial potential to foster additive trilingualism in students, thereby granting numerous social, political, economic and educational advantages to students and Chinese society. In comparison, models such as the Transitional and Depreciative Models, which promote limited trilingualism or essentially aim to achieve solely bilingualism or monolingualism, are weak. However, popularising the strong models of trilingual education requires overcoming considerable challenges, such as establishing a consensus among stakeholders, setting realistic linguistic targets, and flexibly taking local contextual factors into account when implementing the strong models

Researching Trilingualism and Trilingual Education in China

The introductory chapter gives the rationale and methodology of the chapters included in this volume. All chapters are research reports that emerged from a nationwide project on trilingualism and trilingual education in China. Traditionally, research in this area of study was conducted mostly in isolation in different minority regions or prefectures in the country. There was no known investigation done for gaining a comprehensive, comparable, and critical understanding of the contemporary situation of languages in use and language provision for indigenous minority groups. This chapter, firstly, provides the underpinning ideology and rationale for the nationwide project conducted through concerted efforts of research teams from key minority regions or prefectures and Guangdong Province which provides a particularly interesting case study. It then presents a detailed account of the design of the research, from the establishment of the nationwide network, the formulation of research questions, the methodology and methods used, the designing of research tools, to the organisation of the volume. The strategies used to deal with all these are clearly crucial from the point of view of comparability, validity and trustworthiness of research findings. Finally, the chapter lists the target audience of the volume, including policy makers, teachers and researchers in minority education.

Language policies and sociolinguistic domains in the context of minority groups in China

ABSTRACT In mainland China, most ethnic minority students today face the challenge of learning three languages in schools, namely, their home language (L1), Mandarin Chinese (L2) and a foreign language, usually English (L3). Research into trilingual education for minority groups has been most active since the turn of the twenty-first century. This paper offers an overview of recent research, depicting major models adopted by minority schools and the contextual factors leading to the models in various minority regions in China. The paper begins with an account of state policies relevant to language provision for minority groups in China, which is followed by a discussion of the outcomes and models of trilingual education. A critical analysis is then made of contextual factors such as ethnolinguistic vitality, history, economy, geopolitics and the changing status of the three languages that affect trilingual education for minority groups. The paper argues that language policymaking in different domains including families, schools, regions and the state should be informed by research evidence on practical models that are effective in meeting the cognitive and affective needs of children from ethnic minority backgrounds.