Ardina Grüber

A WNK kinase binds and phosphorylates V-ATPase subunit C.

WNK (with no lysine (K)) protein kinases are found in many eukaryotes and share a unique active site. Here, we report that a member of the Arabidopsis WNK family (AtWNK8) interacts with subunit C of the vacuolar H+‐ATPase (V‐ATPase) via a short C‐terminal domain. AtWNK8 is shown to autophosphorylate intermolecularly and to phosphorylate Arabidopsis subunit C (AtVHA‐C) at multiple sites as determined by MALDI‐TOF MS analysis. Furthermore, we show that AtVHA‐C and other V‐ATPase subunits are phosphorylated when V1‐complexes are used as substrates for AtWNK8. Taken together, our results provide evidence that V‐ATPases are potential targets of WNK kinases and their associated signaling pathways.

Structural insight and flexible features of NS5 proteins from all four serotypes of Dengue virus in solution

Infection by the four serotypes of Dengue virus (DENV-1 to DENV-4) causes an important arthropod-borne viral disease in humans. The multifunctional DENV nonstructural protein 5 (NS5) is essential for capping and replication of the viral RNA and harbours a methyltransferase (MTase) domain and an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain. In this study, insights into the overall structure and flexibility of the entire NS5 of all four Dengue virus serotypes in solution are presented for the first time. The solution models derived revealed an arrangement of the full-length NS5 (NS5FL) proteins with the MTase domain positioned at the top of the RdRP domain. The DENV-1 to DENV-4 NS5 forms are elongated and flexible in solution, with DENV-4 NS5 being more compact relative to NS5 from DENV-1, DENV-2 and DENV-3. Solution studies of the individual MTase and RdRp domains show the compactness of the RdRp domain as well as the contribution of the MTase domain and the ten-residue linker region to the flexibility of the entire NS5. Swapping the ten-residue linker between DENV-4 NS5FL and DENV-3 NS5FL demonstrated its importance in MTase-RdRp communication and in concerted interaction with viral and host proteins, as probed by amide hydrogen/deuterium mass spectrometry. Conformational alterations owing to RNA binding are presented.

Structural Characterization of the Erythrocyte Binding Domain of the Reticulocyte Binding Protein Homologue Family of Plasmodium yoelii

ABSTRACT Invasion of the host cell by the malaria parasite is a key step for parasite survival and the only stage of its life cycle where the parasite is extracellular, and it is therefore a target for an antimalaria intervention strategy. Multiple members of the reticulocyte binding protein homologues (RH) family are found in all plasmodia and have been shown to bind to host red blood cells directly. In the study described here, we delineated the erythrocyte binding domain (EBD) of one member of the RH family, termed Py235, from Plasmodium yoelii. Moreover, we have obtained the low-resolution structure of the EBD using small-angle X-ray scattering. Comparison of the EDB structure to other characterized Plasmodium receptor binding domains suggests that there may be an overall structural conservation. These findings may help in developing new approaches to target receptor ligand interactions mediated by parasite proteins.

Structural Determination of Functional Units of the Nucleotide Binding Domain (NBD94) of the Reticulocyte Binding Protein Py235 of Plasmodium yoelii

Background Invasion of the red blood cells (RBC) by the merozoite of malaria parasites involves a large number of receptor ligand interactions. The reticulocyte binding protein homologue family (RH) plays an important role in erythrocyte recognition as well as virulence. Recently, it has been shown that members of RH in addition to receptor binding may also have a role as ATP/ADP sensor. A 94 kDa region named Nucleotide-Binding Domain 94 (NBD94) of Plasmodium yoelii YM, representative of the putative nucleotide binding region of RH, has been demonstrated to bind ATP and ADP selectively. Binding of ATP or ADP induced nucleotide-dependent structural changes in the C-terminal hinge-region of NBD94, and directly impacted on the RBC binding ability of RH. Methodology/Principal Findings In order to find the smallest structural unit, able to bind nucleotides, and its coupling module, the hinge region, three truncated domains of NBD94 have been generated, termed NBD94444–547, NBD94566–663 and NBD94674–793, respectively. Using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy NBD94444–547 has been identified to form the smallest nucleotide binding segment, sensitive for ATP and ADP, which became inhibited by 4-Chloro-7-nitrobenzofurazan. The shape of NBD94444–547 in solution was calculated from small-angle X-ray scattering data, revealing an elongated molecule, comprised of two globular domains, connected by a spiral segment of about 73.1 Å in length. The high quality of the constructs, forming the hinge-region, NBD94566–663 and NBD94674–793 enabled to determine the first crystallographic and solution structure, respectively. The crystal structure of NBD94566–663 consists of two helices with 97.8 Å and 48.6 Å in length, linked by a loop. By comparison, the low resolution structure of NBD94674–793 in solution represents a chair–like shape with three architectural segments. Conclusions These structures give the first insight into how nucleotide binding impacts on the overall structure of RH and demonstrates the potential use of this region as a novel drug target.

Structural architecture and interplay of the nucleotide- and erythrocyte binding domain of the reticulocyte binding protein Py235 from Plasmodium yoelii

Human malaria is caused by the cyclical invasion of the hosts red blood cells (RBCs) by the invasive form of the parasite, the merozoite. The invasion of the RBC involves a range of parasite ligand receptor interactions, a process which is under intensive investigation. Two protein families are known to be important in the recognition and invasion of the human erythrocyte, the erythrocyte-binding like (EBL) proteins and the reticulocyte binding like proteins, of which the Py235 family in Plasmodium yoelii is a member. Recently the nucleotide binding domain (NBD94), that plays a role in ATP sensing, and the erythrocyte binding domain (EBD) of Py235, called EBD(1-194), have been identified. Binding of ATP leads to conformational changes within Py235 from P. yoelli and results in enhanced binding of the protein to the RBC. Structural features of these domains have been obtained, providing the platform to discuss how the structural architecture creates the basis for an interplay of the sensing NBD and the EBD domain in Py235. In analogy to the receptor-mediated ligand-dimerization model of the EBL proteins PvDBP and PfEBA-175 from Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum, respectively, we hypothesise that Py235 of P. yoelii binds via its EBD(1-194) domain to the RBC receptor, thereby inducing dimerization of the Py235-receptor complex.

Structural features of NS3 of Dengue virus serotypes 2 and 4 in solution and insight into RNA binding and the inhibitory role of quercetin.

Dengue virus (DENV), which has four serotypes (DENV-1 to DENV-4), is the causative agent of the viral infection dengue. DENV nonstructural protein 3 (NS3) comprises a serine protease domain and an RNA helicase domain which has nucleotide triphosphatase activities that are essential for RNA replication and viral assembly. Here, solution X-ray scattering was used to provide insight into the overall structure and flexibility of the entire NS3 and its recombinant helicase and protease domains for Dengue virus serotypes 2 and 4 in solution. The DENV-2 and DENV-4 NS3 forms are elongated and flexible in solution. The importance of the linker residues in flexibility and domain-domain arrangement was shown by the compactness of the individual protease and helicase domains. Swapping of the 174PPAVP179 linker stretch of the related Hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3 into DENV-2 NS3 did not alter the elongated shape of the engineered mutant. Conformational alterations owing to RNA binding are described in the protease domain, which undergoes substantial conformational alterations that are required for the optimal catalysis of bound RNA. Finally, the effects of ATPase inhibitors on the enzymatically active DENV-2 and DENV-4 NS3 and the individual helicases are presented, and insight into the allosteric effect of the inhibitor quercetin is provided.

NMR solution structure of NBD94483–502 of the nucleotide-binding domain of the Plasmodium yoelii reticulocyte-binding protein Py235

Invasion of the erythrocyte by the invasive form of the malaria parasite, the merozoite, is a complex process involving numerous parasite proteins. The reticulocyte-binding protein homologues (RH) family of merozoite proteins has been previously shown to play an important role in the invasion process. Previously, it has been shown that the RH proteins of Plasmodium yoelii, Py235, play a role as an ATP/ADP sensor. Binding of Py235 to the erythrocyte surface is increased in the presence of ATP, while ADP has an inhibitory effect. The sensor domain of Py235 is called NBD94 and the segment that has been shown to covalently bind the adenine nucleotide is made up by the residues (483) FNEIKEKLKHYNFDDFVKEE(502) . Here, we report on the solution nuclear magnetic resonance structure of this peptide (NBD94(483-502) ) showing the presence of an α-helix between amino acid residues 485 and 491. The N- and C-terminal segments of the structure bend at tyrosine 493, a residue important for ATP binding. Importantly, erythrocyte-binding assays demonstrate that NBD94(483-502) can directly interfere with the binding of native Py235 to erythrocytes, suggesting a direct role of this region in erythrocyte binding. The data will provide the foundation for future studies to identify new compounds that directly interfere with the invasion process.

Crystallographic studies of the coupling segment NBD94674–781 of the nucleotide-binding domain of the Plasmodium yoelii reticulocyte-binding protein Py235

The Plasmodium yoelii reticulocyte-binding protein Py235 has a role as an ATP/ADP sensor. The sensor domain of Py235 is called NBD94; it consists of at least three functional regions, the nucleotide-binding region (NBD94(444-547)), hinge region (NBD94(566-663)) and C-terminal coupling region (NBD94(674-781)), and has been proposed to link ATP/ADP binding to the interaction of Py235 with the red blood cell. Here, NBD94(674-781) was cloned, expressed and purified to high purity. The monodisperse protein was crystallized by vapour diffusion. A diffraction data set was collected to 2.9 Å resolution with 97.2% completeness using a synchrotron-radiation source. The crystals belonged to space group C2, with unit-cell parameters a=65.08, b=82.71, c=114.27 Å, β=94.72°, and contained four molecules in the asymmetric unit.