Arja M. Band

Endogenous plasma membrane t‐SNARE syntaxin 4 is present in rab11 positive endosomal membranes and associates with cortical actin cytoskeleton

Membrane fusion requires the formation of a complex between a vesicle protein (v‐SNARE) and the target membrane proteins (t‐SNAREs). Syntaxin 4 is a t‐SNARE that, according to previous overexpression studies, is predominantly localized at the plasma membrane. In the present study endogenous syntaxin 4 was found in intracellular vesicular structures in addition to regions of the plasma membrane. In these vesicular structures syntaxin 4 colocalized with rab11, a marker of recycling endosomes. Furthermore, syntaxin 4 colocalized with actin at the dynamic regions of the plasma membrane. Treatment with N‐ethylmaleimide, the membrane transport inhibitor, caused an increased accumulation of syntaxin 4/rab11 positive vesicles in actin filament‐like structures. Finally, purified recombinant syntaxin 4 but not syntaxin 2 or 3 cosedimented with actin filaments in vitro, suggesting direct interaction between these two proteins. Taken together, these data suggest that syntaxin 4 regulates secretion at the actin‐rich areas of the plasma membrane and may be recycled through rab11 positive intracellular membranes.

Crosstalk of TGF-β and Estrogen Receptor Signaling in Breast Cancer

Estrogen receptor-α (ERα) and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling pathways are major regulators during mammary gland development, function and tumorigenesis. Predominantly, they have opposing roles in proliferation and apoptosis. While ERα signaling supports growth and differentiation and is antiapoptotic, mammary gland epithelia cells are very sensitive to TGF-β—induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Their regulatory pathways intersect, and ERα blocks TGF-β pathway by multiple means, including direct interactions of its signaling components, Smads. However, relatively little is known of the dysfunction of their interactions in cancer. A better understanding would help to develop new strategies for breast cancer treatment.

Prox1 promotes expansion of the colorectal cancer stem cell population to fuel tumor growth and ischemia resistance.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) initiation and growth is often attributed to stem cells, yet little is known about the regulation of these cells. We show here that a subpopulation of Prox1-transcription-factor-expressing cells have stem cell activity in intestinal adenomas, but not in the normal intestine. Using in vivo models and 3D ex vivo organoid cultures of mouse adenomas and human CRC, we found that Prox1 deletion reduced the number of stem cells and cell proliferation and decreased intestinal tumor growth via induction of annexin A1 and reduction of the actin-binding protein filamin A, which has been implicated as a prognostic marker in CRC. Loss of Prox1 also decreased autophagy and the survival of hypoxic tumor cells in tumor transplants. Thus, Prox1 is essential for the expansion of the stem cell pool in intestinal adenomas and CRC without being critical for the normal functions of the gut.

Oncogenic mutations in intestinal adenomas regulate Bim-mediated apoptosis induced by TGF-β

Significance The TGF-β/Smad pathway is mutated in the majority of late-stage colorectal cancers (CRCs), but its role in intestinal adenomas is unclear. We show here that intestinal epithelial cells, including the Lgr5+ stem cells, are sensitive to the TGF-β–induced apoptosis in adenomas and that this is mediated by the BH3-only protein Bim. Furthermore, the tumor-initiating Apc mutation increases, whereas the KRas oncogene decreases the TGF-β sensitivity. Our results provide important mechanistic insight into how TGF-β regulates intestinal adenoma development and show that drugs mimicking the effects of BH3-only proteins can induce apoptosis also in CRC cells that are resistant to TGF-β. In the majority of microsatellite-stable colorectal cancers (CRCs), an initiating mutation occurs in the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) or β-catenin gene, activating the β-catenin/TCF pathway. The progression of resulting adenomas is associated with oncogenic activation of KRas and inactivation of the p53 and TGF-β/Smad functions. Most established CRC cell lines contain mutations in the TGF-β/Smad pathway, but little is known about the function of TGF-β in the early phases of intestinal tumorigenesis. We used mouse and human ex vivo 3D intestinal organoid cultures and in vivo mouse models to study the effect of TGF-β on the Lgr5+ intestinal stem cells and their progeny in intestinal adenomas. We found that the TGF-β–induced apoptosis in Apc-mutant organoids, including the Lgr5+ stem cells, was mediated by up-regulation of the BH3-only proapoptotic protein Bcl-2–like protein 11 (Bim). BH3-mimetic compounds recapitulated the effect of Bim not only in the adenomas but also in human CRC organoids that had lost responsiveness to TGF-β–induced apoptosis. However, wild-type intestinal crypts were markedly less sensitive to TGF-β than Apc-mutant adenomas, whereas the KRas oncogene increased resistance to TGF-β via the activation of the Erk1/2 kinase pathway, leading to Bim down-regulation. Our studies identify Bim as a critical mediator of TGF-β–induced apoptosis in intestinal adenomas and show that the common progression mutations modify Bim levels and sensitivity to TGF-β during intestinal adenoma development.

The Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt Pathway Regulates Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling by Destabilizing Ski and Inducing Smad7

Ski is an oncoprotein that negatively regulates transforming growth factor (TGF)-β signaling. It acts as a transcriptional co-repressor by binding to TGF-β signaling molecules, Smads. Efficient TGF-β signaling is facilitated by rapid proteasome-mediated degradation of Ski by TGF-β. Here we report that Ski is phosphorylated by Akt/PKB kinase. Akt phosphorylates Ski on a highly conserved Akt motif at threonine 458 both in vitro and in vivo. The phosphorylation of Ski at threonine 458 is induced by Akt pathway activators including insulin, insulin-like growth factor-1, and hepatocyte growth factor. The phosphorylation of Ski causes its destabilization and reduces Ski-mediated inhibition of expression of another negative regulator of TGF-β, Smad7. Induction of Smad7 levels leads to inactivation of TGF-β receptors and TGF-β signaling cascade, as indicated by reduced induction of TGF-β target p15. Therefore, Akt modulates TGF-β signaling by temporarily adjusting the levels of two TGF-β pathway negative regulators, Ski and Smad7. These novel findings demonstrate that Akt pathway activation directly impacts TGF-β pathway.

Inhibition of the membrane fusion machinery prevents exit from the TGN and proteolytic processing by furin

The Semliki Forest virus (SFV) glycoprotein precursor p62 is processed to the E2 and E3 during the transport from the trans‐Golgi network (TGN) to the cell surface. We have studied the regulation of the membrane fusion machinery (Rab/N‐ethylmaleimide (NEM)‐sensitive fusion protein (NSF)/soluble NSF attachment protein (SNAP)–SNAP receptor) in this processing. Activation of the disassembly of this complex with recombinant NSF stimulated the cleavage of p62 in permeabilized cells. Inactivation of NSF with a mutant α‐SNAP(L294A) or NEM treatment inhibited processing of p62. Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor inhibited the cleavage. Inactivation of NSF blocks the transport of SFV glycoproteins and vesicular stomatitis virus G‐glycoprotein from the TGN membranes to the cell surface. The results support the conclusion that inhibition of membrane fusion arrests p62 in the TGN and prevents its processing by furin.

Localization of plasma membrane t-SNAREs syntaxin 2 and 3 in intracellular compartments

BackgroundMembrane fusion requires the formation of a complex between a vesicle protein (v-SNARE) and the target membrane proteins (t-SNAREs). Syntaxin 2 and 3 are t-SNAREs that, according to previous over-expression studies, are predominantly localized at the plasma membrane. In the present study we investigated localization of the endogenous syntaxin 2 and 3.ResultsEndogenous syntaxin 2 and 3 were found in NRK cells in intracellular vesicular structures in addition to regions of the plasma membrane. Treatment of these cells with N-ethylmaleimide (NEM), which is known to inactivate membrane fusion, caused syntaxin 3 to accumulate in the trans-Golgi network and syntaxin 2 in perinuclear membrane vesicles. Kinetic analysis in the presence of NEM indicated that this redistribution of syntaxin 2 and 3 takes place via actin containing structures.ConclusionOur data suggest that syntaxin 2 cycles between the plasma membrane and the perinuclear compartment whereas syntaxin 3 cycles between the plasma membrane and the trans-Golgi network. It is possible that this cycling has an important role in the regulation of t-SNARE function.

SnoN oncoprotein enhances estrogen receptor-α transcriptional activity

Estrogen receptor-α (ERα) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathways are essential regulators during mammary gland development and tumorigenesis. Ski-related novel gene (SnoN) is an oncoprotein and a negative feedback inhibitor of TGF-β signaling. We have previously reported that low expression of SnoN in ERα positive breast carcinomas is associated with favorable prognosis (Zhang et al. Cancer Res. (2003) 63, 5005-5010). Here we have studied the mechanism of a possible cross-talk between ERα and SnoN. We find that SnoN interacts with the estrogen-activated form of ERα in the nucleus. SnoN contains two highly conserved nuclear receptor binding LxxLL-like motifs and we show that mutations in these motifs reduce the interaction of SnoN with ERα. Over-expression of SnoN enhanced the transcriptional activity of ERα in estrogen response element (ERE)-reporter assays, augmented the expression of several ERα target genes and increased the proliferation of MCF7 breast carcinoma cells in an estrogen-dependent manner. Chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrated that SnoN interacts with ERα at the TTF1 (pS2) gene promoter. Conversely, silencing of SnoN reduced both ERE-reporter activity and the expression of ERα target genes in MCF7 and T-47D breast cancer cells. Histone deacetylase inhibition increased the level of SnoN and SnoN-dependent enhancement of ERα-dependent transcription and SnoN supported the recruitment of p300 histone acetylase to ERα. This study reveals a novel mechanism that interconnects ERα and TGF-β signaling pathways by SnoN. Accordingly, the results indicate that high SnoN level promotes ERα signaling and possibly breast cancer progression.

Transforming Growth Factor-β in Cancer Therapy

Several transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway proteins undergo proteasomal degradation. Controlled proteasomal degradation provides a means for the cell to time and fine-tune the duration of both positive and negative physiological signals. Importantly, this physiological control appears to be aberrant in for example tumor cells carrying mutations of the Smad signaling molecules. We summarize here the recent striking observations on the action of the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in controlling TGF-β signal transduction in both physiological and pathological conditions, such as cancer.

Cysteine-rich protein 1 is regulated by transforming growth factor-β1 and expressed in lung fibrosis

Transforming growth factor‐β (TGF‐β) is a diverse cytokine regulating growth, apoptosis, differentiation, adhesion, invasion, and extracellular matrix production. Dysregulation of TGF‐β is associated with fibrotic disorders and epithelial‐mesenchymal transition, and has been linked with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Cysteine‐rich protein 1 (CRP1) is a small LIM‐domain containing protein involved in smooth muscle differentiation. Here, we show that TGF‐β1 increases the expression of CRP1 protein and that CRP1 levels increase in a biphasic fashion. A rapid transient (15–45 min) increase in CRP1 is followed by a subsequent, sustained increase in CRP1 a few hours afterwards that lasts several days. We find that TGF‐β1 regulates the expression of CRP1 through Smad and non‐conventional p38 MAPK signaling pathways in a transcription‐independent manner and that the induction occurs concomitant with an increase in myofibroblast differentiation. Using CRP1 silencing by shRNA, we identify CRP1 as a novel factor mediating cell contractility. Furthermore, we localize CRP1 to fibroblastic foci in IPF lungs and find that CRP1 is significantly more expressed in IPF as compared to control lung tissue. The results show that CRP1 is a novel TGF‐β1 regulated protein that is expressed in fibrotic lesions and may be relevant in the IPF disease. J. Cell. Physiol. 227: 2605–2612, 2012.