Arno Knapitsch

Time of flight positron emission tomography towards 100ps resolution with L(Y)SO: an experimental and theoretical analysis

Scintillation crystals have a wide range of applications in detectors for high energy and medical physics. They are recquired to have not only good energy resolution, but also excellent time resolution. In medical applications, L(Y)SO crystals are commonly used for time of flight positron emission tomography (TOF-PET). This study aims at determining the experimental and theoretical limits of timing using L(Y)SO based scintillators coupled to silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs). Measurements are based on the time-over-threshold method in a coincidence setup utilizing the ultra-fast amplifier-discriminator NINO and a fast oscilloscope. Using a 2 × 2 × 3 mm3 LSO:Ce codoped 0.4% Ca crystal coupled to a commercially available SiPM (Hamamatsu S10931-050P MPPC), we achieve a coincidence time resolution (CTR) of 108±5ps FWHM measured at E=511keV. We determine the influence of the data acquisition system to 27±2ps FWHM and thus negligible as compared to the CTR. This shows that L(Y)SO scintillators coupled to SiPM photodetectors are capable of achieving very good time resolution close to the desired 100ps FWHM for TOF-PET systems. To fully understand the measured values, we developed a simulation tool in MATLAB that incorporates the timing properties of the photodetector, the scintillation properties of the crystal and the light transfer within the crystal simulated by SLITRANI. The simulations are compared with measured data in order to determine their predictive power. Finally we use this model to discuss the influence of several important parameters on the time resolution like scintillation rise- and fall time and light yield, as well as single photon time resolution (SPTR) and the detection efficiency of the SiPM. In addition we find the influence of photon travel time spread in the crystal not negligible on the CTR, even for the used 2 × 2 × 3 mm3 geometry.

Results of Photonic Crystal Enhanced Light Extraction on Heavy Inorganic Scintillators

A major challenge for future particle physics experiments and nuclear medicine imaging applications will be the improvement of energy and time resolution of the detector systems. Both parameters are strongly correlated with the number of photoelectrons which can be registered after a particle has deposited its energy in the scintillator. One problem in heavy scintillating materials is that a large fraction of the light produced inside the bulk material is trapped inside the crystal due to total internal reflection. Recent developments in the area of nanophotonics show that those limitations can be overcome by introducing a photonic crystal (PhC) slab at the outcoupling surface of the scintillator. Photonic crystals are optical materials which can affect the propagation of light in multiple ways. In this work, the PhC is used for the extraction of photons which are otherwise reflected within the scintillator. Our simulations show light output improvements for a wide range of scintillating materials due to light scattering effects of the photonic grating. In the practical part of the work we show how we were producing first samples of PhC slabs on top of different scintillators to confirm the simulation results by measurements. Through the deposition of an auxiliary layer of silicon nitride and the adaptation of the standard electron beam lithography (EBL) parameters we could successfully produce several PhC slabs on top of 1.2 mm × 2.6 mm × 5 mm lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO) scintillators. In the characterization process we show a 30-60% light yield improvement of the different PhC designs when compared to an unstructured reference scintillator, which is also in close accordance with our simulation results.

Effect of Aspect Ratio on the Light Output of Scintillators

The influence of the geometry of the scintillators is presented in this paper. We focus on the effect of narrowing down the section of crystals that have a given length. The light output of a set of crystals with very similar scintillating properties but different geometries measured with several coupling/wrapping configurations is provided. We observe that crystals shaped in thin rods have a lower light output as compared to bulk or sliced crystals. The effect of unpolishing the crystal faces is also investigated, and it is shown that highest light outputs are not necessarily obtained with crystals having all faces polished. Simulation results based on a realistic model of the crystal that implements light scattering on the crystal edges are in agreement with the experimental data. Fine-tuning of this model would allow us to further explore the details of light propagation in scintillators and would be highly valuable to fast timing detection and highly granular detectors.

How Photonic Crystals Can Improve the Timing Resolution of Scintillators

Photonic crystals (PhC) and quantum optics phenomena open interesting perspectives to enhance the light extraction from scintillating media with high refractive indices as demonstrated by our previous work. By doing so they also influence the timing resolution of scintillators by improving the photostatistics. The present contribution will demonstrate that they are actually doing much more. Indeed photonic crystals, if properly designed, allow the extraction of fast light propagation modes in the crystal with higher efficiency contributing therefore to increase the density of photons in the early phase of the light pulse. This is of particular interest to tag events at future high-energy physics colliders, such as CLIC, with a bunch-crossing rate of 2 GHz, as well as for a new generation of Time of Flight Positron Emission Tomographs (TOFPET) aiming at a timing resolution of 100ps. At this level of precision a good control of the light propagation modes is essential if we consider that in a 2×2×20m m3 LYSO crystal, the time spread (peak to peak) of extracted photons can be as large as 400ps considering simple bouncing only. The paper presents a detailed analysis of the light propagation and extraction modes in a LYSO crystal combining the LITRANI light ray tracing and the CAMFR PhC simulation codes. Ongoing measurement results are shown with an attempt to unfold the contribution from the improved photostatistics resulting from the total enhanced light output on one side and from the improved contribution of fast propagation modes extraction on the other side. Some results are also shown on a new and more industrial process to produce PhCs by the use of nanoimprint technology.

Effects of photonic crystals on the light output of heavy inorganic scintillators

Photonic crystals (PhCs) are optical materials which can affect the propagation of light in multiple ways. In recent years PhCs contributed to major technological developments in the field of semiconductor lasers, light emitting diodes and photovoltaic applications. In our case we are investigating the capabilities of photonic crystal slabs with the aim to improve the performance of heavy inorganic scintillators. To study the combination of scintillators and PhCs we use a Monte-Carlo program to simulate the light propagation inside a scintillator and a rigorous coupled wave analysis (RCWA) framework to analyse the optical PhC properties. The simulations show light output improvements of a wide range of scintillating materials due to light scattering effects of the PhC slabs. First samples have been produced on top of 1.2 × 2.6 × 5 mm LSO (cerium-doped Lutetium Oxyorthosilicate, Lu2SiO5:Ce3+) scintillators using electron beam lithography and reactive ion etching (RIE). Our samples show a 30-60% light output improvement when compared to unstructured reference crystals which is in close accordance with our simulation results. In addition, a theoretical investigation of the restrictions of the current PhC sample is given which concludes with prospects for improved future designs.

Factors influencing time resolution of scintillators and ways to improve them

The renewal of interest in Time of Flight Positron Emission Tomography (TOF-PET), as well as the necessity to precisely tag events in high energy physics (HEP) experiments at future colliders are pushing for an optimization of all factors affecting the time resolution of the whole acquisition chain comprising the crystal, the photo detector, and the electronics. The time resolution of a scintillator-based detection system is determined by the rate of photoelectrons at the detection threshold, which depends on the time distribution of photons being converted in the photo detector. The possibility to achieve time resolution of about 100ps FWHM requires an optimization of the light production in the scintillator, the light transport and its transfer from the scintillator to the photo detector. In order to maximize the light yield, and in particular the density of photons in the first nanosecond, while minimizing the rise time and decay time, particular attention must be paid to the energy transfer mechanisms to the activator as well as to the energy transition type at the activator ion. Alternatively other light emission mechanisms can be considered. We will show that particularly Cerenkov emission can be used for this purpose. Special emphasis was put on the light transport within the crystal and at its interface with the photo detector. Since light is produced isotropically in the scintillator the detector geometry must be optimized to decrease the optical path-length to the photo detector. Moreover light bouncing within the scintillator, affecting about 70% of the photons generated in currently used crystals, must be reduced as much as possible. We also investigate photonics crystals that are specifically designed to favor specific light propagation modes at the limit of total reflection inside and outside of the crystal, and how they might increase the light transfer efficiency to the photo detector and hence improve time resolution. Examples for the production and deposition of photonics crystals as layers on LYSO and LuYAP crystals are shown here, as well as first results on an improved light extraction due to this method.

Review on photonic crystal coatings for scintillators

The amount of light and its time distribution are key factors determining the performance of scintillators when used as radiation detectors. However most inorganic scintillators are made of heavy materials and suffer from a high index of refraction which limits light extraction efficiency. This increases the path length of the photons in the material with the consequence of higher absorption and tails in the time distribution of the extracted light. Photonic crystals are a relatively new way of conquering this light extraction problem. Basically they are a way to produce a smooth and controllable index matching between the scintillator and the output medium through the nanostructuration of a thin layer of optically transparent high index material deposited at the coupling face of the scintillator. Our review paper discusses the theory behind this approach as well as the simulation details. Furthermore the different lithography steps of the production of an actual photonic crystal sample will be explained. Measurement results of LSO scintillator pixels covered with a nanolithography machined photonic crystal surface are presented together with practical tips for the further development and improvement of this technique.

Conical photonic crystals for enhancing light extraction efficiency from high refractive index materials.

We propose, analyze and optimize a two-dimensional conical photonic crystal geometry to enhance light extraction from a high refractive index material, such as an inorganic scintillator. The conical geometry suppresses Fresnel reflections at an optical interface due to adiabatic impedance matching from a gradient index effect. The periodic array of cone structures with a pitch larger than the wavelength of light diffracts light into higher-order modes with different propagating angles, enabling certain photons to overcome total internal reflection (TIR). The numerical simulation shows simultaneous light yield gains relative to a flat surface both below and above the critical angle and how key parameters affect the light extraction efficiency. Our optimized design provides a 46% gain in light yield when the conical photonic crystals are coated on an LSO (cerium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate) scintillator.

Progress on photonic crystals

The renewal of interest for Time of Flight Positron Emission Tomography (TOF PET) has highlighted the need for increasing the light output of scintillating crystals and in particular for improving the light extraction from materials with a high index of refraction. One possible solution to overcome the problem of total internal reflection and light losses resulting from multiple bouncing within the crystal is to improve the light extraction efficiency at the crystal/photodetector interface by means of photonic crystals, i.e. media with a periodic modulation of the dielectric constant at the wavelength scale. After a short reminder of the underlying principles this contribution proposes to present the very encouraging results we have recently obtained on LYSO pixels and the perspectives on other crystals such as BGO, LuYAP and LuAG. These results confirm the impressive predictions from our previously published Monte Carlo simulations. A detailed description of the sample preparation procedure is given as well as the methodology and different characterization steps to control the process and evaluate the results. Pictures and quantitative results are shown, which confirm that significant light output gain factors (50% and more) can be obtained with this approach. Finally an interesting feature of photonic crystals to collimate light in some privileged directions is highlighted.

Study of the Angular Distribution of Scintillation Photons

This paper presents a characterization method to experimentally determine the angular distribution of scintillation light. By exciting LYSO crystals with a radioactive source, we measured the light angular profiles obtained with samples of different geometries in different conditions of wrapping. We also measured the angular distribution of light emitting in glue and compared it with the one emitting in air. Angular distribution of light output of photonic crystals is also provided. Consistency of the measurements is verified with conventional light output measurements.