Arnold M. Ludwig

Neurological soft signs and psychopathology. I. Findings in schizophrenia.

Systematic, standardized evaluations for neurological soft signs were conducted on five psychiatric populations and a control group of medical inpatients. Soft signs were grouped according to their probable clinical association with cortical lobe dysfunction. Preliminary results indicated that schizophrenics, compared to other groups, showed significant increased presence of soft signs presumably related to frontal and parietal lobe dysfunction.

Pavlov's “bells” and alcohol craving

This study pertains to the reported factors governing the experience of craving in sober alcoholics. 150 alcoholics were administered a semi-structured interview and asked to report situations which triggered a desire to drink in a manner comparable to a conditioned stimulus. Respondents mentioned a wide variety of such stimuli, many of which were unique to certain individuals. Almost 93% reported at least one cue associated with heightened craving for alcohol. In the authors opinion, these results have important implications for treatment programs for alcoholics.

The control of violent behavior through faradic shock.

This study deals with the use of faradic shock administered as a punishment for the purpose of curbing the assaultive and violent behaviors of a 31-year-old, hospitalized, chronic schizophrenic female. During a base line period, an attempt was made to delineate the behaviors antecedent to these aggressive outbursts. From these observations, a hierarchy of behaviors was constructed that reflected the temporal sequence of events culminating in assaultive activity. Three levels of behaviors were chosen for modification: 1) aggressive acts, 2) verbal threats and 3) accusations of being persecuted and abused. The aversive conditioning approach was employed for each of these levels in a stepwise fashion, with each successive level of behaviors being included as punishable offenses once effective control over behaviors on the previous level had been demonstrated. The results indicated that a marked reduction in the incidence of the behaviors on all three levels was accomplished by means of this treatment approach. Of clinical interest was the appearance of “substitution symptoms” following the punishment of each successive level of aggressive and related behaviors. These symptoms proved to be transient. Shortly after instituting the punishment program for accusatory verbalizations, the patient began to show appropriate, socialized approach behavior which continued throughout the remainder of the program. Moreover, the patients weekly behavior rating scores indicated a significant improvement in general functioning over time following initiation of the aversive therapy program. Some possible reasons for the decrease in psychopathology and the increase in positive attributes in the patient were considered.

Effects of Sensory Input and Alcohol Administration on Visual Evoked Potentials in Normal Subjects and Alcoholics

Ethanol is generally classed as a sedative drug. Following even low doses, diminished sensory sensitivity to taste, smell, and painful stimuli may occur. We have hypothesized that alcoholics may lack some normal perceptual/neurophysiological inhibitory mechanisms in their CNS which renders them especially vulnerable to the effects of sensory over-stimulation (Ludwig et al. 1977). Drinking ethanol by alcoholics may then represent an adaptive attempt to diminish sensory input either by inhibiting sensory input pathways or by releasing central sensory inhibitory pathways normally less active. Based on this hypothesis, we might expect alcoholics to have greater sensory responsiveness than matched non-alcoholic normal controls while sober, especially under conditions of intense or prolonged sensory stimulation. Ethanol might have a differential effect on sensory responsiveness in alcoholics and normal controls, with an especially effective pharmacological ‘dampening’ effect of the drug contributing to its reinforcing qualities in alcoholics.

A case of multiple personality: Diagnosis and therapy

Abstract A case of multiple (4) personality is presented and described. A detailed examination of psychological tests of ability, memory, and personality is undertaken. These data lead to a discussion of the practical and theoretical problems of diagnosis. It is the contention of this paper that dual or multiple personalities should be considered a unique category apart from the traditional concepts of hysteria or schizophrenia. A therapeutic “fusion” is described and evaluated. Der Fall einer multiplen Personlichkeit: Diagnose und Therapie Jeffrey M. Brandsma und Arnold M. Ludwig

Neurological soft signs and psychopathology. Incidence in diagnostic groups

Summary In earlier studies the authors have reported impairments of cortical function in the parietal and frontal lobes of schizophrenic patients. In this study these results are pursued. The performance of different groups of psychiatric patients with respect to individual neurological soft signs rather than combined cortical function scores, was studied. The potential influence of psychotropic drugs on the significant findings was also analyzed. The results show that specific individual neurologic soft signs are significantly more frequently present in schizophrenics than in either controls or in other psychiatric groups. Additionally, there was no statistical evidence of psychotropic drug effects on the findings.

Alterations in consciousness produced by combinations of LSD, hypnosis and psychotherapy

SummaryThis study was designed to measure the alterations in consciousness produced by combinations of LSD, hypnosis and psychotherapy. Five groups of 14 patients were given the modified Linton-Langs Questionnaire during baseline and treatment conditions. The results indicated that the hypnodelic condition (LSD + Hypnosis + Psychotherapy) caused the greatest alteration in consciousness and could be statistically differentiated from all other conditions on scale and total questionnaire score measures. The Psychedelic (LSD + Psychotherapy), Delic (LSD) and Hypnotherapy (Hypnosis + Psychotherapy) conditions could not be distinguished well from one another but differed significantly from the Psychotherapy condition and baseline measures.

The creative achievement scale

Abstract: The Creative Achievement Scale (CAS) was designed to measure the creative accomplishments of deceased individuals based on information extracted from biographical sources (e.g., published biographies). The CAS contains 11 items which pertain to personal attributes, product qualities, and sociocultural factors. Statistical analyses conducted on one small (n = 12) and one larger sample (n = 50) of subjects revealed the CAS to be a reliable and valid instrument.

Schizophrenia, Sensory Deprivation, And Sensory Overload

In comparison to general psychiatric patients and normal controls, chronic schizophrenics displayed greater reactivity to conditions of sensory deprivation and sensory overload. Overall, their performance conformed to an inverted-U-shaped function of arousal whereby deviations in sensory input, above or below a rather narrow range, produced increased regulatory behavior designed to restore sensory homeostasis.

The Experimental Production of Narcotic Drug Effects and Withdrawal Symptoms Through Hypnosis

Abstract The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of suggestion in the production of certain narcotic drug effects and in the narcotic abstinence syndrome. In addition, we were interested in determining the extent to which actual narcotic drug effects could be reversed through posthypnotic suggestion. The results of our study indicated that formerly addicted Ss, who had experienced at least one “cold turkey” withdrawal from narcotics, were able to attain a highly realistic suggested narcotic drug and withdrawal experience through hypnosis with appropriate physiological and behavioral changes, which they were unable to achieve in other control conditions. Moreover, when actual narcotic drags were administered, certain Ss were able to return to normal behavior following appropriate posthypnotic suggestions. Hypnosis was deemed to be essential in the production of all these effects.