Artavazd Tadevosyan

Transient Receptor Potential Canonical-3 Channel–Dependent Fibroblast Regulation in Atrial Fibrillation

Background —Fibroblast proliferation and differentiation are central in atrial fibrillation (AF)-promoting remodeling. Here, we investigated fibroblast regulation by Ca 2+ -permeable transient receptor potential canonical-3 (TRPC3) channels. Methods and Results —Freshly-isolated rat cardiac-fibroblasts abundantly expressed TRPC3 and had appreciable non-selective cation currents (I NSC ) sensitive to a selective TPRC3-channel blocker, pyrazole-3 (3-μmol/L). Pyrazole-3 suppressed angiotensin-II-induced Ca 2+ -influx, proliferation and α-smooth-muscle actin (αSMA) protein-expression in fibroblasts. Ca 2+ -removal and TRPC3-blockade suppressed extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK)-phosphorylation, and ERK-phosphorylation inhibition reduced fibroblast-proliferation. TRPC3-expression was upregulated in atria from AF-patients, goats with electrically-maintained AF and tachypacing-induced heart-failure dogs. TRPC3-knockdown (shRNA-based) decreased canine atrial-fibroblast proliferation. In left-atrial (LA) fibroblasts freshly isolated from dogs kept in AF for 1 week by atrial-tachypacing, TRPC3 protein-expression, currents, ERK-phosphorylation and extracellular-matrix gene-expression were all significantly increased. In cultured LA-fibroblasts from AF-dogs, proliferation-rates, αSMA-expression and ERK-phosphorylation were increased, and suppressed by pyrazole-3. MicroRNA-26 was downregulated in canine AF-atria; experimental micro-RNA-26 knockdown reproduced AF-induced TRPC3-upregulation and fibroblast-activation. MicroRNA-26 has Nuclear Factor of Activated T-cells (NFAT) binding-sites in the 59-promoter-region. NFAT-activation increased in AF-fibroblasts and NFAT negatively regulated microRNA-26 transcription. In vivo pyrazole-3 administration suppressed AF while decreasing fibroblast proliferation and extracellular-matrix gene-expression. Conclusions —TRPC3-channels regulate cardiac fibroblast proliferation and differentiation, likely by controlling Ca 2+ -influx that activates ERK-signaling. AF increases TRPC3-channel expression by causing NFAT-mediated downregulation of microRNA-26 and causes TRPC3-dependent enhancement of fibroblast proliferation and differentiation. In vivo TRPC3-block prevents AF-substrate development in a dog model of electrically-maintained AF. TRPC3 likely plays an important role in AF-promoting fibroblast pathophysiology and is a novel potential therapeutic target.Background— Fibroblast proliferation and differentiation are central in atrial fibrillation (AF)–promoting remodeling. Here, we investigated fibroblast regulation by Ca2+-permeable transient receptor potential canonical-3 (TRPC3) channels. Methods and Results— Freshly isolated rat cardiac fibroblasts abundantly expressed TRPC3 and had appreciable nonselective cation currents (INSC) sensitive to a selective TPRC3 channel blocker, pyrazole-3 (3 &mgr;mol/L). Pyrazole-3 suppressed angiotensin II–induced Ca2+ influx, proliferation, and &agr;-smooth muscle actin protein expression in fibroblasts. Ca2+ removal and TRPC3 blockade suppressed extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation inhibition reduced fibroblast proliferation. TRPC3 expression was upregulated in atria from AF patients, goats with electrically maintained AF, and dogs with tachypacing-induced heart failure. TRPC3 knockdown (based on short hairpin RNA [shRNA]) decreased canine atrial fibroblast proliferation. In left atrial fibroblasts freshly isolated from dogs kept in AF for 1 week by atrial tachypacing, TRPC3 protein expression, currents, extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation, and extracellular matrix gene expression were all significantly increased. In cultured left atrial fibroblasts from AF dogs, proliferation rates, &agr;-smooth muscle actin expression, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation were increased and were suppressed by pyrazole-3. MicroRNA-26 was downregulated in canine AF atria; experimental microRNA-26 knockdown reproduced AF-induced TRPC3 upregulation and fibroblast activation. MicroRNA-26 has NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells) binding sites in the 5′ promoter region. NFAT activation increased in AF fibroblasts, and NFAT negatively regulated microRNA-26 transcription. In vivo pyrazole-3 administration suppressed AF while decreasing fibroblast proliferation and extracellular matrix gene expression. Conclusions— TRPC3 channels regulate cardiac fibroblast proliferation and differentiation, likely by controlling the Ca2+ influx that activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling. AF increases TRPC3 channel expression by causing NFAT-mediated downregulation of microRNA-26 and causes TRPC3-dependent enhancement of fibroblast proliferation and differentiation. In vivo, TRPC3 blockade prevents AF substrate development in a dog model of electrically maintained AF. TRPC3 likely plays an important role in AF by promoting fibroblast pathophysiology and is a novel potential therapeutic target.

TRPC3-Dependent Fibroblast Regulation in Atrial Fibrillation

Background —Fibroblast proliferation and differentiation are central in atrial fibrillation (AF)-promoting remodeling. Here, we investigated fibroblast regulation by Ca 2+ -permeable transient receptor potential canonical-3 (TRPC3) channels. Methods and Results —Freshly-isolated rat cardiac-fibroblasts abundantly expressed TRPC3 and had appreciable non-selective cation currents (I NSC ) sensitive to a selective TPRC3-channel blocker, pyrazole-3 (3-μmol/L). Pyrazole-3 suppressed angiotensin-II-induced Ca 2+ -influx, proliferation and α-smooth-muscle actin (αSMA) protein-expression in fibroblasts. Ca 2+ -removal and TRPC3-blockade suppressed extracellular-signal regulated kinase (ERK)-phosphorylation, and ERK-phosphorylation inhibition reduced fibroblast-proliferation. TRPC3-expression was upregulated in atria from AF-patients, goats with electrically-maintained AF and tachypacing-induced heart-failure dogs. TRPC3-knockdown (shRNA-based) decreased canine atrial-fibroblast proliferation. In left-atrial (LA) fibroblasts freshly isolated from dogs kept in AF for 1 week by atrial-tachypacing, TRPC3 protein-expression, currents, ERK-phosphorylation and extracellular-matrix gene-expression were all significantly increased. In cultured LA-fibroblasts from AF-dogs, proliferation-rates, αSMA-expression and ERK-phosphorylation were increased, and suppressed by pyrazole-3. MicroRNA-26 was downregulated in canine AF-atria; experimental micro-RNA-26 knockdown reproduced AF-induced TRPC3-upregulation and fibroblast-activation. MicroRNA-26 has Nuclear Factor of Activated T-cells (NFAT) binding-sites in the 59-promoter-region. NFAT-activation increased in AF-fibroblasts and NFAT negatively regulated microRNA-26 transcription. In vivo pyrazole-3 administration suppressed AF while decreasing fibroblast proliferation and extracellular-matrix gene-expression. Conclusions —TRPC3-channels regulate cardiac fibroblast proliferation and differentiation, likely by controlling Ca 2+ -influx that activates ERK-signaling. AF increases TRPC3-channel expression by causing NFAT-mediated downregulation of microRNA-26 and causes TRPC3-dependent enhancement of fibroblast proliferation and differentiation. In vivo TRPC3-block prevents AF-substrate development in a dog model of electrically-maintained AF. TRPC3 likely plays an important role in AF-promoting fibroblast pathophysiology and is a novel potential therapeutic target.Background— Fibroblast proliferation and differentiation are central in atrial fibrillation (AF)–promoting remodeling. Here, we investigated fibroblast regulation by Ca2+-permeable transient receptor potential canonical-3 (TRPC3) channels. Methods and Results— Freshly isolated rat cardiac fibroblasts abundantly expressed TRPC3 and had appreciable nonselective cation currents (INSC) sensitive to a selective TPRC3 channel blocker, pyrazole-3 (3 &mgr;mol/L). Pyrazole-3 suppressed angiotensin II–induced Ca2+ influx, proliferation, and &agr;-smooth muscle actin protein expression in fibroblasts. Ca2+ removal and TRPC3 blockade suppressed extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation inhibition reduced fibroblast proliferation. TRPC3 expression was upregulated in atria from AF patients, goats with electrically maintained AF, and dogs with tachypacing-induced heart failure. TRPC3 knockdown (based on short hairpin RNA [shRNA]) decreased canine atrial fibroblast proliferation. In left atrial fibroblasts freshly isolated from dogs kept in AF for 1 week by atrial tachypacing, TRPC3 protein expression, currents, extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation, and extracellular matrix gene expression were all significantly increased. In cultured left atrial fibroblasts from AF dogs, proliferation rates, &agr;-smooth muscle actin expression, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation were increased and were suppressed by pyrazole-3. MicroRNA-26 was downregulated in canine AF atria; experimental microRNA-26 knockdown reproduced AF-induced TRPC3 upregulation and fibroblast activation. MicroRNA-26 has NFAT (nuclear factor of activated T cells) binding sites in the 5′ promoter region. NFAT activation increased in AF fibroblasts, and NFAT negatively regulated microRNA-26 transcription. In vivo pyrazole-3 administration suppressed AF while decreasing fibroblast proliferation and extracellular matrix gene expression. Conclusions— TRPC3 channels regulate cardiac fibroblast proliferation and differentiation, likely by controlling the Ca2+ influx that activates extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling. AF increases TRPC3 channel expression by causing NFAT-mediated downregulation of microRNA-26 and causes TRPC3-dependent enhancement of fibroblast proliferation and differentiation. In vivo, TRPC3 blockade prevents AF substrate development in a dog model of electrically maintained AF. TRPC3 likely plays an important role in AF by promoting fibroblast pathophysiology and is a novel potential therapeutic target.

G protein‐coupled receptor signalling in the cardiac nuclear membrane: evidence and possible roles in physiological and pathophysiological function

Abstract  G protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs) play key physiological roles in numerous tissues, including the heart, and their dysfunction influences a wide range of cardiovascular diseases. Recently, the notion of nuclear localization and action of GPCRs has become more widely accepted. Nuclear‐localized receptors may regulate distinct signalling pathways, suggesting that the biological responses mediated by GPCRs are not solely initiated at the cell surface but may result from the integration of extracellular and intracellular signalling pathways. Many of the observed nuclear effects are not prevented by classical inhibitors that exclusively target cell surface receptors, presumably because of their structures, lipophilic properties, or affinity for nuclear receptors. In this topical review, we discuss specifically how angiotensin‐II, endothelin, β‐adrenergic and opioid receptors located on the nuclear envelope activate signalling pathways, which convert intracrine stimuli into acute responses such as generation of second messengers and direct genomic effects, and thereby participate in the development of cardiovascular disorders.

Nuclear-delimited Angiotensin Receptor-mediated Signaling Regulates Cardiomyocyte Gene Expression

Angiotensin-II (Ang-II) from extracardiac sources and intracardiac synthesis regulates cardiac homeostasis, with mitogenic and growth-promoting effects largely due to altered gene expression. Here, we assessed the possibility that angiotensin-1 (AT1R) or angiotensin-2 (AT2R) receptors on the nuclear envelope mediate effects on cardiomyocyte gene expression. Immunoblots of nucleus-enriched fractions from isolated cardiomyocytes indicated the presence of AT1R and AT2R proteins that copurified with the nuclear membrane marker nucleoporin-62 and histone-3, but not markers of plasma (calpactin-I), Golgi (GRP-78), or endoplasmic reticulum (GM130) membranes. Confocal microscopy revealed AT1R and AT2R proteins on nuclear membranes. Microinjected Ang-II preferentially bound to nuclear sites of isolated cardiomyocytes. AT1R and AT2R ligands enhanced de novo RNA synthesis in isolated cardiomyocyte nuclei incubated with [α-32P]UTP (e.g. 36.0 ± 6.0 cpm/ng of DNA control versus 246.4 ± 15.4 cpm/ng of DNA Ang-II, 390.1 ± 15.5 cpm/ng of DNA L-162313 (AT1), 180.9 ± 7.2 cpm/ng of DNA CGP42112A (AT2), p < 0.001). Ang-II application to cardiomyocyte nuclei enhanced NFκB mRNA expression, a response that was suppressed by co-administration of AT1R (valsartan) and/or AT2R (PD123177) blockers. Dose-response experiments with Ang-II applied to purified cardiomyocyte nuclei versus intact cardiomyocytes showed greater increases in NFκB mRNA levels at saturating concentrations with ∼2-fold greater affinity upon nuclear application, suggesting preferential nuclear signaling. AT1R, but not AT2R, stimulation increased [Ca2+] in isolated cardiomyocyte nuclei. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor blockade by 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate prevented AT1R-mediated Ca2+ release and attenuated AT1R-mediated transcription initiation responses. We conclude that cardiomyocyte nuclear membranes possess angiotensin receptors that couple to nuclear signaling pathways and regulate transcription. Signaling within the nuclear envelope (e.g. from intracellularly synthesized Ang-II) may play a role in Ang-II-mediated changes in cardiac gene expression, with potentially important mechanistic and therapeutic implications.

Mechanisms Underlying Rate-Dependent Remodeling of Transient Outward Potassium Current in Canine Ventricular Myocytes

Transient outward K+ current (Ito) downregulation following sustained tachycardia in vivo is usually attributed to tachycardiomyopathy. This study assessed potential direct rate regulation of cardiac Ito and underlying mechanisms. Cultured adult canine left ventricular cardiomyocytes (37°C) were paced continuously at 1 or 3 Hz for 24 hours. Ito was recorded with whole-cell patch clamp. The 3-Hz pacing reduced Ito by 44% (P<0.01). Kv4.3 mRNA and protein expression were significantly reduced (by ≈30% and ≈40%, respectively) in 3-Hz paced cells relative to 1-Hz cells, but KChIP2 expression was unchanged. Prevention of Ca2+ loading with nimodipine or calmodulin inhibition with W-7, A-7, or W-13 eliminated 3-Hz pacing-induced Ito downregulation, whereas downregulation was preserved in the presence of valsartan. Inhibition of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK)II with KN93, or calcineurin with cyclosporin A, also prevented Ito downregulation. CaMKII-mediated phospholamban phosphorylation at threonine 17 was increased in 3-Hz paced cells, compatible with enhanced CaMKII activity, with functional significance suggested by acceleration of the Ca2+i transient decay time constant (Indo 1-acetoxymethyl ester microfluorescence). Total phospholamban expression was unchanged, as was expression of Na+/Ca2+ exchange and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase proteins. Nuclear localization of the calcineurin-regulated nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT)c3 was increased in 3-Hz paced cells compared to 1-Hz (immunohistochemistry, immunoblot). INCA-6 inhibition of NFAT prevented Ito reduction in 3-Hz paced cells. Calcineurin activity increased after 6 hours of 3-Hz pacing. CaMKII inhibition prevented calcineurin activation and NFATc3 nuclear translocation with 3-Hz pacing. We conclude that tachycardia downregulates Ito expression, with the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent CaMKII and calcineurin/NFAT systems playing key Ca2+-sensing and signal-transducing roles in rate-dependent Ito control.

Activation of Histone Deacetylase-6 Induces Contractile Dysfunction Through Derailment of α-Tubulin Proteostasis in Experimental and Human Atrial Fibrillation

Background— Atrial fibrillation (AF) is characterized by structural remodeling, contractile dysfunction, and AF progression. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) influence acetylation of both histones and cytosolic proteins, thereby mediating epigenetic regulation and influencing cell proteostasis. Because the exact function of HDACs in AF is unknown, we investigated their role in experimental and clinical AF models. Methods and Results— Tachypacing of HL-1 atrial cardiomyocytes and Drosophila pupae hearts significantly impaired contractile function (amplitude of Ca2+ transients and heart wall contractions). This dysfunction was prevented by inhibition of HDAC6 (tubacin) and sirtuins (nicotinamide). Tachypacing induced specific activation of HDAC6, resulting in &agr;-tubulin deacetylation, depolymerization, and degradation by calpain. Tachypacing-induced contractile dysfunction was completely rescued by dominant-negative HDAC6 mutants with loss of deacetylase activity in the second catalytic domain, which bears &agr;-tubulin deacetylase activity. Furthermore, in vivo treatment with the HDAC6 inhibitor tubastatin A protected atrial tachypaced dogs from electric remodeling (action potential duration shortening, L-type Ca2+ current reduction, AF promotion) and cellular Ca2+-handling/contractile dysfunction (loss of Ca2+ transient amplitude, sarcomere contractility). Finally, atrial tissue from patients with AF also showed a significant increase in HDAC6 activity and reduction in the expression of both acetylated and total &agr;-tubulin. Conclusions— AF induces remodeling and loss of contractile function, at least in part through HDAC6 activation and subsequent derailment of &agr;-tubulin proteostasis and disruption of the cardiomyocyte microtubule structure. In vivo inhibition of HDAC6 protects against AF-related atrial remodeling, disclosing the potential of HDAC6 as a therapeutic target in clinical AF.

Fibroblast Inward-Rectifier Potassium Current Upregulation in Profibrillatory Atrial Remodeling

RATIONALE Fibroblasts are involved in cardiac arrhythmogenesis and contribute to the atrial fibrillation substrate in congestive heart failure (CHF) by generating tissue fibrosis. Fibroblasts display robust ion currents, but their functional importance is poorly understood. OBJECTIVE To characterize atrial fibroblast inward-rectifier K(+) current (IK1) remodeling in CHF and its effects on fibroblast properties. METHODS AND RESULTS Freshly isolated left atrial fibroblasts were obtained from controls and dogs with CHF (ventricular tachypacing). Patch clamp was used to record resting membrane potential (RMP) and IK1. RMP was significantly increased by CHF (from -43.2±0.8 mV, control, to -55.5±0.9 mV). CHF upregulated IK1 (eg, at -90 mV from -1.1±0.2 to -2.7±0.5 pA/pF) and increased the expression of KCNJ2 mRNA (by 52%) and protein (by 80%). Ba(2+) (300 μmol/L) decreased the RMP and suppressed the RMP difference between controls and dogs with CHF. Store-operated Ca(2+) entry (Fura-2-acetoxymethyl ester) and fibroblast proliferation (flow cytometry) were enhanced by CHF. Lentivirus-mediated overexpression of KCNJ2 enhanced IK1 and hyperpolarized fibroblasts. Functional KCNJ2 suppression by lentivirus-mediated expression of a dominant negative KCNJ2 construct suppressed IK1 and depolarized RMP. Overexpression of KCNJ2 increased Ca(2+) entry and fibroblast proliferation, whereas the dominant negative KCNJ2 construct had opposite effects. Fibroblast hyperpolarization to mimic CHF effects on RMP enhanced the Ca(2+) entry. MicroRNA-26a, which targets KCNJ2, was downregulated in CHF fibroblasts. Knockdown of endogenous microRNA-26 to mimic CHF effects unregulated IK1. CONCLUSIONS CHF upregulates fibroblast KCNJ2 expression and currents, thereby hyperpolarizing RMP, increasing Ca(2+) entry, and enhancing atrial fibroblast proliferation. These effects are likely mediated by microRNA-26a downregulation. Remodeling-induced fibroblast KCNJ2 expression changes may play a role in atrial fibrillation promoting fibroblast remodeling and structural/arrhythmic consequences.

Atrial Fibrillation Activates AMP-Dependent Protein Kinase and its Regulation of Cellular Calcium Handling: Potential Role in Metabolic Adaptation and Prevention of Progression.

BACKGROUND Atrial fibrillation (AF) is associated with metabolic stress, which activates adenosine monophosphate-regulated protein kinase (AMPK). OBJECTIVES This study sought to examine AMPK response to AF and associated metabolic stress, along with consequences for atrial cardiomyocyte Ca(2+) handling. METHODS Calcium ion (Ca(2+)) transients (CaTs) and cell shortening (CS) were measured in dog and human atrial cardiomyocytes. AMPK phosphorylation and AMPK association with Ca(2+)-handling proteins were evaluated by immunoblotting and immunoprecipitation. RESULTS CaT amplitude and CS decreased at 4-min glycolysis inhibition (GI) but returned to baseline at 8 min, suggesting cellular adaptation to metabolic stress, potentially due to AMPK activation. GI increased AMPK-activating phosphorylation, and an AMPK inhibitor, compound C (CompC), abolished the adaptation of CaT and CS to GI. The AMPK activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (AICAR) increased CaT amplitude and CS, restoring CompC-induced CaT and CS decreases. CompC decreased L-type calcium channel current (ICa,L), along with ICa,L-triggered CaT amplitude and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) content under voltage clamp conditions in dog cells and suppressed CaT and ICa,L in human cardiomyocytes. Small interfering ribonucleic acid-based AMPK knockdown decreased CaT amplitude in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. L-type Ca(2+) channel α subunits coimmunoprecipitated with AMPKα. Atrial AMPK-activating phosphorylation was enhanced by 1 week of electrically maintained AF in dogs; fractional AMPK phosphorylation was increased in paroxysmal AF and reduced in longstanding persistent AF patients. CONCLUSIONS AMPK is activated by metabolic stress and AF, and helps maintain the intactness of atrial ICa,L, Ca(2+) handling, and cell contractility. AMPK contributes to the atrial compensatory response to AF-related metabolic stress; AF-related metabolic responses may be an interesting new therapeutic target.

Intracrine endothelin signaling evokes IP3-dependent increases in nucleoplasmic Ca2 + in adult cardiac myocytes

Endothelin receptors are present on the nuclear membranes in adult cardiac ventricular myocytes. The objectives of the present study were to determine 1) which endothelin receptor subtype is in cardiac nuclear membranes, 2) if the receptor and ligand traffic from the cell surface to the nucleus, and 3) the effect of increased intracellular ET-1 on nuclear Ca(2+) signaling. Confocal microscopy using fluorescently-labeled endothelin analogs confirmed the presence of ETB at the nuclear membrane of rat cardiomyocytes in skinned-cells and isolated nuclei. Furthermore, in both cardiac myocytes and aortic endothelial cells, endocytosed ET:ETB complexes translocated to lysosomes and not the nuclear envelope. Although ETA and ETB can form heterodimers, the presence or absence of ETA did not alter ETB trafficking. Treatment of isolated nuclei with peptide: N-glycosidase F did not alter the electrophoretic mobility of ETB. The absence of N-glycosylation further indicates that these receptors did not originate at the cell surface. Intracellular photolysis of a caged ET-1 analog ([Trp-ODMNB(21)]ET-1) evoked an increase in nucleoplasmic Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)]n) that was attenuated by inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor inhibitor 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate and prevented by pre-treatment with ryanodine. A caged cell-permeable analog of the ETB-selective antagonist IRL-2500 blocked the ability of intracellular cET-1 to increase [Ca(2+)]n whereas extracellular application of ETA and ETB receptor antagonists did not. These data suggest that 1) the endothelin receptor in the cardiac nuclear membranes is ETB, 2) ETB traffics directly to the nuclear membrane after biosynthesis, 3) exogenous endothelins are not ligands for ETB on nuclear membranes, and 4) ETB associated with the nuclear membranes regulates nuclear Ca(2+) signaling.

Regulation of cardiac nitric oxide signaling by nuclear β-adrenergic and endothelin receptors

At the cell surface, βARs and endothelin receptors can regulate nitric oxide (NO) production. β-adrenergic receptors (βARs) and type B endothelin receptors (ETB) are present in cardiac nuclear membranes and regulate transcription. The present study investigated the role of the NO pathway in the regulation of gene transcription by these nuclear G protein-coupled receptors. Nitric oxide production and transcription initiation were measured in nuclei isolated from the adult rat heart. The cell-permeable fluorescent dye 4,5-diaminofluorescein diacetate (DAF2 DA) was used to provide a direct assessment of nitric oxide release. Both isoproterenol and endothelin increased NO production in isolated nuclei. Furthermore, a β3AR-selective agonist, BRL 37344, increased NO synthesis whereas the β1AR-selective agonist xamoterol did not. Isoproterenol increased, whereas ET-1 reduced, de novo transcription. The NO synthase inhibitor l-NAME prevented isoproterenol from increasing either NO production or de novo transcription. l-NAME also blocked ET-1-induced NO-production but did not alter the suppression of transcription initiation by ET-1. Inhibition of the cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) using KT5823 also blocked the ability of isoproterenol to increase transcription initiation. Furthermore, immunoblotting revealed eNOS, but not nNOS, in isolated nuclei. Finally, caged, cell-permeable isoproterenol and endothelin-1 analogs were used to selectively activate intracellular β-adrenergic and endothelin receptors in intact adult cardiomyocytes. Intracellular release of caged ET-1 or isoproterenol analogs increased NO production in intact adult cardiomyocytes. Hence, activation of the NO synthase/guanylyl cyclase/PKG pathway is necessary for nuclear β3ARs to increase de novo transcription. Furthermore, we have demonstrated the potential utility of caged receptor ligands in selectively modulating signaling via endogenous intracellular G protein-coupled receptors.