Asaf Zuck

Polycrystalline mercuric iodide detectors

The fabrication of polycrystalline HgI2 thick film detectors using the hot wall physical vapor deposition, method is described. The X-ray response of these detectors to a radiological X-ray generator of 60 kVp has been studied using the current integration mode. The response expressed in (mu) A, the dark current expressed in pA/cm2 and sensitivity expressed in (mu) C/R(DOT)cm2 are given for these detectors for several thickness and grain sizes. The optimal sensitivity is compared with published data on the response to X-rays by polycrystalline PbI2 and A-Se detectors.

Comparative study of Pbl2 and Hgl2 as direct detector materials for high-resolution x-ray image sensors

X-ray imaging properties are reported for HgI2 and PbI2, as candidate materials for future direct detection x- ray image sensors, including the first results from screen- printed HgI2 arrays. The leakage current of PbI2 is reduced by using new deposition conditions, but is still larger than HgI2. Both HgI2 and PbI2 have high spatial resolution but new data shows that the residual image spreading of PbI2 is not due to k-edge fluorescence and its possible origin is discussed. HgI2 has substantially higher sensitivity than PbI2 at comparable bias voltages, and we discuss the various loss mechanisms. Unlike PbI2, HgI2 shows a substantial spatially non-uniform response that is believed to originate from the large grain size, which is comparable to the pixel size. We obtain zero spatial frequency DQE values of 0.7 - 0.8 with PbI(subscript 24/ under low energy exposure conditions. A model for signal generation in terms of the semiconducting properties of the materials is presented.

High-flux x-ray response of composite mercuric iodide detectors

A theological model is presented which analyses the sensitivity of composite detectors to a flux of x-rays emerging form a radiological x-ray generator. The model describes the many factor which influenced the x-ray response, for the case where the detector is composed of several layers of crystallites separated by a polymeric glue as is the case of composite HgI2 detectors fabricated by the screen print method. The model also describes the variation of the sensitivity with grain size and dielectric constant, taking into account the dielectric constant of the binder showing also the experimental result. Finally, the experimental result of the sensitivity vs. the voltage is shown for single crystal and composite HgI2 detectors and these results are compared with polycrystalline PbI2 and a-Se, which are the main material candidates for medical digital radiology.

Mercuric iodide thick films for radiological X-ray detectors

For the first time polycrystalline HgI2 photoconductor material directly evaporated on a-Si array for direct conversion of x-rays for imaging purposes, were successfully imaged at Xerox-Palo Alto Research Center. The initial results are very promising and show a high x-ray sensitivity and low leakage current. Since Ti-W alloys are used as pixel electrodes, an intermediate passivation layer must be used to prevent a chemical reaction with the detector plate. The thickness that these Polycrystalline HgI2 thick film detectors have been fabricated until now is up to 1,800 micrometers , which makes them useful also for high energy applications. The characterization of the Polycrystalline HgI2 thick films deposited with or without the passivation layers by measuring their dark currents, sensitivity to 65 and 85 kVp x-rays and residual signals after 1 minute of biasing, will be shown for several detectors. Some preliminary results will be shown for some novel screen-printed HgI2 detectors.

Radiological x-ray response of polycrystalline mercuric-iodide detectors

A first image of some tiny screws were obtained for the first time with polycrystalline HgI2 acting as the photoconductor material deposited on a-Si direct conversion X- ray image sensors, produced by Xerox -- Palo Alto Research Center. The initial results are very promising and show a high X-ray sensitivity and low leakage current. The response of these detectors to a radiological X-ray generator of 65 kVp has been studied using the current integration mode. Already its sensitivity expressed in (mu) C/R*cm2, is very high, values of 20 (mu) C/R*cm2 have been measured for films of 100 - 250 microns thickness and bias of 50 - 200 volts respectively, which is superior to the published data for competing materials such as polycrystalline PbI2 and a-Se detectors. The fabrication and characterization measurements of the Polycrystalline HgI2 thick film detectors will be given. The characterization data which will be reported here consists of: (a) sensitivity, (b) dark currents, (c) stability of sensitivity dependence on the number of exposure, (d) X-ray response dependence on dose energy and (e) signal decay dependence on the number of exposures.

Approaching the theoretical x-ray sensitivity with Hgl2 direct detection image sensors

The x-ray response of polycrystalline HgI2 for direct detection x-ray imagers, is studied using test arrays with 512 X 512 pixels of size 100 micron. We quantify the contributions to the x-ray sensitivity from electron and hole charge collection, x-ray absorption, effective fill factor and image lag, for x-ray energies from 25-100 kVp. The data analysis compares the measured sensitivity to the theoretical limit and identifies the contributions from various loss mechanisms. The sensitivity is explained by the ionization energy of approximately 5 eV, coupled with small corrections arising from incomplete x-ray absorption, incomplete charge collection, and image lag. Hence, imagers with HgI2 approach the theoretical maximum response for semiconductor detectors, with external array sensitivity demonstrated to within 50 percent of the limit.

Towards imaging with polycrystalline mercuric iodide semiconductor detectors

Preparation of polycrystalline mercuric iodide very thin (1 {micro}m) films using laser ablation and thick films (100--600 {micro}m), using hot pressing, hot wall vapor deposition and screen printing methods, fabricated as radiation detector plates are briefly described. X-ray diffraction, photoluminescence and optical microscopic measurements as well as response to nuclear radiation will be given. Finally, recent results obtained with a large area imaging pixel detector will be shown.

High-resolution x-ray image sensors based on HgI2

Measurements of polycrystalline HgI2 films on active matrix direct detection image sensors are described, for possible application to high sensitivity room temperature x- ray detection. The arrays exhibit low leakage current and very high sensitivity - roughly an order of magnitude better than has been demonstrated with other designs. The uniformity of the response varies randomly from pixel to pixel, for reasons that are not yet understood, but are probably related to the large grain size.

Delayed emission of surface-generated trapped carriers in transient charge transport of single-crystal and polycrystalline HgI2

Transient charge transport (TCT) measurements were used to evaluate the electrical conduction properties of HgI2 single crystals. Some comparative preliminary results for polycrystalline mercuric iodide (poly-HgI2) thick-film X-ray detectors are also reported. The latter were prepared by physical vapor deposition (PVD). The mobility , trapping time 2, and surface recombination velocity s of electrons or holes were determined by analyses of transient voltages developed across the sample in response to a drift of the corresponding charge carriers created by alpha particle absorption near one of the electrodes. Electron-, and hole mobilities of single crystal HgI2 were n = 80 cm2/V•s and p = 4.8 cm2/V•s, respectively. Trapping times were 2n ≅ 22 V and 2p ≅ 8 V, and surface recombination velocities sn ≅ 1.1 ×105 cm/s and sp ≅ 3.6 ×103 cm/s . Those of the polycrystalline material depend on the deposition technology, and vary between 65 and 88 cm2/V•s for electrons, and between 4.3 and 4.1 cm2/V•s for holes. Bulk trapping-times and surface recombination velocities appear of the same order of magnitude as in the single crystal. An effect of carriers being first generated in near-surface traps and then gradually released is observed for both the single crystal and the polycrystalline material. It is stronger for electrons as compared to holes, and stronger in the polycrystalline material as compared to the single crystal.

Medical imaging with mercuric iodide direct digital radiography flat-panel x-ray detectors

Photoconductive polycrystalline mercuric iodide coated on amorphous silicon flat panel thin film transistor (TFT) arrays is the best candidate for direct digital X-ray detectors for radiographic and fluoroscopic applications in medical imaging. The mercuric iodide is vacuum deposited by Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD). This coating technology is capable of being scaled up to sizes required in common medical imaging applications. Coatings were deposited on 2”×2” and 4”×4” TFT arrays for imaging performance evaluation and also on conductive-coated glass substrates for measurements of X-ray sensitivity and dark current. TFT arrays used included pixel pitch dimensions of 100, 127 and 139 microns. Coating thickness between 150 microns and 250 microns were tested with beam energy between 25 kVP and 100kVP utilizing exposure ranges typical for both fluoroscopic, and radiographic imaging. X-ray sensitivities measured for the mercuric iodide samples and coated TFT detectors were superior to any published results for competitive materials (up to 7100 ke/mR/pixel for 100 micron pixels). It is believed that this higher sensitivity can result in fluoroscopic imaging signal levels high enough to overshadow electronic noise. Diagnostic quality of radiographic and fluoroscopic images of up to 15 pulses per second were demonstrated. Image lag characteristics appear adequate for fluoroscopic rates. Resolution tests on resolution target phantoms showed that resolution is limited to the TFT array Nyquist frequency including detectors with pixel size of 139 microns resolution ~3.6 lp/mm) and 127 microns (resolution~3.9 lp/mm). The ability to operate at low voltages (~0.5 volt/micron) gives adequate dark currents for most applications and allows low voltage electronics designs.