Asif Faiz

Automotive emissions in developing countries-relative implications for global warming, acidification and urban air quality

This paper attempts to assess the magnitude and scope of automotive pollutant emissions in developing countries and their role in global warming, regional scale air pollution and urban air quality. Greenhouse-gas emissions (CO2 and CFCs) from motor vehicles in developing countries contribute less than 3% to the global greenhouse effect, compared to a 9 to 12% contribution from motor vehicles in OECD countries and Eastern Europe. The share of OECD countries in conventional pollutant emissions from motor vehicles exceeds the combined contribution of all developing countries by a factor of three to five. Acid deposition from motor vehicle emissions does not currently appear to be a problem in developing countries. The incidence of regional scale ozone is not known but could be potentially significant downstream from large urban centers. There is a need for more systematic monitoring and evaluation of acid deposition and regional ozone concentrations in developing countries. Urban air quality is the prime casualty of motorization in developing countries. The air pollution problem will intensify in developing countries with increasing urbanization and the rapid pace of motorization. Urban concentrations of carbon monoxide, airborne lead, particulate matter and sulfur oxides in many developing countries already exceed the levels in industrialized countries. Motor vehicles emit 30% to 85% of all man-made air pollutants in the large urban areas in developing countries, depending on the level of motorization. Without effective measures to control pollutant emissions, some 300 to 500 million city dwellers in developing countries will become exposed to unhealthy and dangerous levels of air pollution from motor vehicles by the year 2000.

Air pollution from motor vehicles: issues and options for Latin American countries

Latin America is among the most urbanized regions of the world with relatively high motorization levels compared with the rest of the developing world. The automotive air pollution problem in Latin America is essentially a metropolitan problem, resulting from rapid and uncontrolled urban growth, increasing traffic congestion, inadequate urban transport infrastructure and services, and an aging and obsolete motor vehicle fleet. The problem is exacerbated by the vulnerable and sensitive physical location of the urban centers in the region. The paper discusses the size of the population in Latin America at risk, the magnitude of health costs associated with elevated levels of air pollution and the contribution of motor vehicles to the problem. The regional motorization characteristics and trends are analyzed, including certain similarities with industrialized countries. As some Latin American countries directed attention towards automotive air pollution long before other developing countries, there is a large body of practical and innovative pollution control experience in Brazil, Chile and Mexico from which other countries in the region could benefit.

AUTOMOTIVE AIR POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: OUTLOOK AND CONTROL STRATEGIES

Abstract Automotive air pollution will intensify with increasing urbanization and the rapid pace of motorization in developing countries. Without effective measures to control automotive air pollution, 300–400 million city dwellers in developing countries will become exposed to unhealthy and dangerous levels of motor vehicle related air pollution by the year 2000. Administratively simple measures that encourage the use of energy efficient and environmentally efficient vehicles, cleaner fuels and better traffic management appear to be the most promising approach to controlling vehicle pollutant emissions in developing countries. These measures should be reinforced by effective regulatory, pricing and taxation policies, sound land use planning and environmentally compatible public transportation systems.

Motor vehicle emissions control: some policy options for developing countries

In the next decade developing countries are likely to experience an unprecedented growth in road transport as a result of the rapid increase in their rates of motorization and urbanization. These developments will translate into increased demands for passenger and freight transport, and consequently into increased levels of automotive air pollution. This paper discusses regulatory strategies and policy options to control automotive emissions in developing countries.

Areawide Performance-Based Rehabilitation and Maintenance Contracts for Low-Volume Roads

To address internal inefficiency and accountability issues, a number of Latin American countries have moved decisively and successfully over the last decade from force-account (direct labor) to contract maintenance. Also, there has been considerable progress in the region in transferring to the private sector, through concessions, the responsibility for improving, maintaining, and operating high-traffic-volume roads, the cost of which is recovered from tolls. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile are among the most advanced countries in this respect. More recently, some countries—particularly Argentina—have switched from the traditional quantities and unit price–based short-term maintenance contracts to long-term performance-type or results-based contracts. The new approach encompasses either routine maintenance activities alone or integrated contracts involving both the rehabilitation and routine maintenance of road networks. The latter form, the so-called CREMA system (Contrato de Recu-peración y Mantenimiento), is now being implemented in Argentina and covers approximately 12 000 km (i.e., about 40 percent of the national paved road network). Such contracts comprise the rehabilitation and subsequent maintenance over a 5-year period of 200-km- to 300-km-long subnetworks. A framework for extending the CREMA concept to low-volume roads is presented. The means by which this newly developed system could be extended to cover both the paving and future maintenance of low-volume roads is explained. Reasons are analyzed as to why this type of contract, which extends the contractor’s share of responsibility over a relatively long period of time, would be well suited to the specific design and construction features of low-cost, low-volume paved roads—in particular, in the risks related to uncertain traffic projections and in the use of local or nontraditional materials in thin pavement structures. Finally, issues related to the use of the CREMA system—especially the need to prepare adequate contract bidding documents, conduct proper bid proposal evaluations, and monitor contractor’s performance during the rehabilitation/paving and maintenance phases—are explored.

Sustainably managing natural resources and the need for construction materials in Pacific island countries: The example of South Tarawa, Kiribati

The growing demand for construction materials in South Tarawa, a remote atoll in the South Pacific, provides an example of the environmental and social challenges associated with the use of non‐renewable resources in the context of small island countries threatened by coastal erosion and climate change. In many small Pacific island countries, the availability of construction materials is limited, with the majority mined from beaches and coastal reefs in an unsustainable manner. Growing demand for construction aggregates is resulting in more widespread sand mining by communities along vulnerable sections of exposed beach and reefs. This has serious consequences for coastal erosion and impacts on reef ecosystem processes, consequences that cannot be easily managed. Construction materials are also in high demand for infrastructure projects which are financed in part with support from international development agencies and donors. This paper reviews the various challenges and risks that aggregate mining poses to reefs, fish, and the coastal health of South Tarawa and argues that the long term consequences from ad hoc beach/reef mining over large areas are likely to be far greater than the impacts associated with environmentally sustainable, organized extraction. The paper concludes with policy recommendations that are also relevant for neighbouring island countries facing similar challenges.

Technical and policy options for reducing emissions from 2-stroke engine vehicles in Asia

Two-stroke engine vehicles constitute a major share of the motor vehicle fleet in Asian countries. In South Asia, these vehicles account for about 60% of the motor vehicle fleet and contribute significantly to air pollution, resulting in adverse health effects, particularly for urban dwellers. They are a major contributor to particulate matter (PM) and hydrocarbon emissions, besides visible smoke. PM emissions from a typical 2-stroke engine used in South Asia are an order of magnitude higher compared to a 4-stroke engine of equivalent size. Poor vehicle maintenance, misuse of lubricants, and adulteration of gasoline exacerbate emissions from these vehicles. Emissions from existing 2-stroke gasoline engines can be reduced by using the correct type and quantity of lubricant, improving vehicle maintenance, and improving the quality of gasoline. For new vehicles, emissions can be reduced by redesigning 2-stroke engines to decrease scavenging losses, and installing catalytic converters to reduce tailpipe emissions. Some of these measures can be achieved through regulation, while others require mass education of drivers, vehicle owners, regulators, and the public at large. Other technical options include replacing the 2-stroke engine by 4-stroke gasoline engine and switching to cleaner alternative fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas, compressed natural gas, and electricity. This paper discusses various technical and supporting policy options for reducing emissions from 2-stroke engines.

Simplified rapid assessment approach to road network management

A simplified approach, using limited network-specific data and the recently developed World Bank HDM Manager, was applied to the highway network of Peru to provide interim guidelines on appropriate standards and policies to be implemented, pending the results of a more elaborate study involving a full-scale road condition and traffic inventory. The design of the methodology is described, as is its application to define the best maintenance strategies for paved and unpaved road networks. The order of magnitude of the level of expenditures required is determined, and a tentative prioritization scheme for road activities is developed.

Rapid Response Stimulus Package for Improving Local Roads and Creating Jobs in Armenia

In late 2008, the Republic of Armenia requested World Bank assistance to help mitigate the local impact of the global financial crisis. This paper describes how the Lifeline Road Improvement Project (LRIP) in Armenia was prepared and implemented as a rapid-response stimulus package. The project was prepared in just 6 weeks. This project helped rehabilitate more than 150 km of low-volume rural roads and generated about 15,000 person-months of employment over an 8-month period from May to December 2009. The World Banks Operational Policy 8.0, Rapid Response to Crises and Emergencies, was applied to the design and implementation of this project. This operational policy is invoked when major adverse economic and social impacts resulting from natural disasters or crises caused by humans occur and triggers the use of a set of streamlined procedures for rapid project preparation and implementation. The lessons learned from the design and implementation of this stimulus package offer useful guidance for preparing rapid-response infrastructure programs and projects under similar conditions and circumstances in other countries.

A Comprehensive Pavement Evaluation System: Application to CRCP : Technical Paper

A continuing study of the performance of CRC pavement was undertaken in an attempt to evaluate and recommend improved design and construction techniques. The evaluation study consisted of three steps: 1) reconnaissance survey; 2) pavement condition survey; 3) detailed field evaluation survey. Results of the condition survey indicated that subbase type, methods of steel placement and steel fabrication, concrete slump and age of the pavement since opened to traffic were major factors in pavement performance. A further investigation was conducted to evaluate the parameters which contributed to CRCP performance in the condition survey. In this phase a field investigation of in-service CRC sections was undertaken. Results of the study show that CRCP failures are a function of a number of interacting variables. Support conditions under CRCP are of particular significance relative to performance. Granular subbases with high stability and good internal drainage have shown good performance.