Assen S. Kirov

Quantitative evaluation of radiochromic film response for two-dimensional dosimetry

Radiochromic film (RCF) is attractive as a thin, high resolution, 2D planar dosimeter. We have studied the uniformity, linearity, and reproducibility of a commercially supplied RCF system (model MD-55). Forty 12 cm long strips of RCF were exposed to uniform doses of 6 MV x rays. Optical density (OD) distributions were measured by a helium-neon scanning laser (633 nm) 2D densitometer and also with a manual densitometer. All film strips showed 8%-15% variations in OD values independent of densitometry technique which are evidently due to nonuniform dispersal of the sensor medium. A double exposure technique was developed to solve this problem. The film is first exposed to a uniform beam, which defines a pixel-by-pixel nonuniformity correction matrix. The film is then exposed to the unknown dose distribution, rescanned, and the net OD at each pixel corrected for nonuniformity. The double exposure technique reduces OD/unit dose variation to a 2%-5% random fluctuation. RCF response was found to deviate significantly from linearity at low doses (40% change in net OD/Gy from 1 to 30 Gy); a finding not previously reported. To study the tradeoff between statistical noise and spatial resolution, OD was averaged over blocks of adjacent 50 microns pixels (ranging from 1 x 1 to 10 x 10 pixels). Reproducibility, defined as the standard deviation of repeated single-pixel measurements on separate film pieces, was 2% at 30 Gy for a resolution of 0.25 mm. With careful correction for nonlinearity and nonuniformity, RCF is a promising quantitative 2D dosimeter for radiation oncology applications.

Validation of a precision radiochromic film dosimetry system for quantitative two‐dimensional imaging of acute exposure dose distributions

We present an evaluation of the precision and accuracy of image-based radiochromic film (RCF) dosimetry performed using a commercial RCF product (Gafchromic MD-55-2, Nuclear Associates, Inc.) and a commercial high-spatial resolution (100 microm pixel size) He-Ne scanning-laser film-digitizer (Personal Densitometer, Molecular Dynamics, Inc.) as an optical density (OD) imaging system. The precision and accuracy of this dosimetry system are evaluated by performing RCF imaging dosimetry in well characterized conformal external beam and brachytherapy high dose-rate (HDR) radiation fields. Benchmarking of image-based RCF dosimetry is necessary due to many potential errors inherent to RCF dosimetry including: a temperature-dependent time evolution of RCF dose response; nonuniform response of RCF; and optical-polarization artifacts. In addition, laser-densitometer imaging artifacts can produce systematic OD measurement errors as large as 35% in the presence of high OD gradients. We present a RCF exposure and readout protocol that was developed for the accurate dosimetry of high dose rate (HDR) radiation sources. This protocol follows and expands upon the guidelines set forth by the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) Task Group 55 report. Particular attention is focused on the OD imaging system, a scanning-laser film digitizer, modified to eliminate OD artifacts that were not addressed in the AAPM Task Group 55 report. RCF precision using this technique was evaluated with films given uniform 6 MV x-ray doses between 1 and 200 Gy. RCF absolute dose accuracy using this technique was evaluated by comparing RCF measurements to small volume ionization chamber measurements for conformal external-beam sources and an experimentally validated Monte Carlo photon-transport simulation code for a 192Ir brachytherapy source. Pixel-to-pixel standard deviations of uniformly irradiated films were less than 1% for doses between 10 and 150 Gy; between 1% and 5% for lower doses down to 1 Gy and 1% and 1.5% for higher doses up to 200 Gy. Pixel averaging to form 200-800 microm pixels reduces these standard deviations by a factor of 2 to 5. Comparisons of absolute dose show agreement within 1.5%-4% of dose benchmarks, consistent with a highly accurate dosimeter limited by its observed precision and the precision of the dose standards to which it is compared. These results provide a comprehensive benchmarking of RCF, enabling its use in the commissioning of novel HDR therapy sources.

TLD, diode and Monte Carlo dosimetry of an 192Ir source for high dose-rate brachytherapy

Very few dosimetry data are available for the current generation of high-dose-rate (HDR) 192Ir sources, which have broad application in remotely afterloaded brachytherapy. We have measured the two-dimensional dose rate distribution around a microSelectron-HDR source and used the results to validate Monte Carlo simulations. Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) in solid-water phantoms were used to measure the transverse-axis dose rates in the distance range 0.5-10 cm and the polar dose-rate profiles at 1.5, 3 and 5 cm distance from the source. At close distances, 2-40 mm from the HDR source, we performed transverse axis dose-rate measurements with a Si diode in water. We performed diode measurements at the same distances also for a pulsed dose-rate (PDR) source to compare the results for 192Ir sources with different encapsulation. Both the HDR and the PDR sources were decayed, separated from their cables and calibrated prior to the measurements. The measured dose rates were compared with Monte Carlo photon transport calculations, which realistically modelled the experimental and source geometry at each measurement point. Agreement between Monte Carlo photon transport absolute dose-rate calculations and measurements was, on average, within 5%. From the transverse-axis experimental data, we deduced a value for the dose-rate constant lambda 0 of 192Ir HDR sources of 1.14 cGy h-1 U-1 +/- 5%. This value agrees within the experimental error with the Monte Carlo estimate of 1.115 cGy h-1 U-1 +/- 0.5%. Excellent agreement with previously measured anisotropy functions was observed. Higher anisotropy is observed for the point at 0 degree along the source cable for which no previous data have been reported.

Experimental validation of Monte Carlo dose calculations about a high‐intensity Ir‐192 source for pulsed dose‐rate brachytherapy

Despite widespread use of high-intensity Ir-192 remotely afterloaded sources, no published measured or calculated dose-rate tables for currently used source designs are available. For a pulsed dose-rate Ir-192 source, both transverse axis (0.5-10 cm) and two-dimensional polar dose-rate profiles (1.5, 3, and 5 cm) were measured with thermoluminescent dosimetry in a solid water phantom. Dose rates were normalized to measured air-kerma strength, and the source geometry was verified by pinhole autoradiography and transmission radiography. At each measurement point, dose rates were calculated by a Monte Carlo photon transport (MCPT) code, which realistically modeled the experimental phantom, source, and detector geometry. Agreement between MCPT absolute dose-rate calculations and measurements averaged 3% and was less than 5%, demonstrating that Monte Carlo simulation is an accurate and powerful tool for two-dimensional dosimetric characterization of high activity Ir-192 sources.

Quantitative optical densitometry with scanning-laser film digitizers.

A new process for eliminating two types of artifacts inherent in commercially available transmission scanning-laser film digitizers is presented. The first kind of artifact results in nonreproducible interference-pattern fluctuations as large as 7%. The second kind results in spreading of transmitted light from low-to-high optical density (OD) in regions with rapidly varying ODs, producing errors as large as 50%. These OD artifacts cause the loss of precision for films with low-OD regions (first type) and the loss of accuracy for films with regions of high-OD near high-OD gradients (second type). Test radiochromic films, produced by uniform exposure to a 6 MV photon beam and a high dose rate 192Ir brachytherapy source, along with test radiographic films were used to characterize the artifacts of a commercially available scanning-laser film digitizer. The interference-pattern artifact was eliminated by digitizing the films on a masked diffusing ground-glass scanning bed. The light-transmission artifact was eliminated through discrete-fast-Fourier-transform (DFFT) deconvolution of transmission profiles with measured digitizer line-spread functions. Obtaining precise OD distributions after the DFFT deconvolution required prior removal of the interference-pattern artifact and application of a low-pass Wiener noise filter. Light-transmission artifacts are particularly significant for applications requiring measurement of high-gradient OD distributions, such as brachytherapy or conformal photon-beam film dosimetry and quantitation of two-dimensional electrophoresis gels. Errors as large as 15%-35% occur in OD distributions representative of these applications. The data collection and correction process developed in this study successfully removes these artifacts.

Measurement and calculation of heterogeneity correction factors for an Ir‐192 high dose‐rate brachytherapy source behind tungsten alloy and steel shields

Shields made of high atomic number material are commonly used in vaginal applicators with high dose-rate (HDR) 192Ir remotely afterloaded brachytherapy sources. However little data is available for the dose distribution around such shields. Heterogeneity correction factors (HCFs) are defined as the ratio of the dose to a point with the heterogeneity (shield) in place, divided by the dose to the same point with no heterogeneity. Using thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) in solid water phantom we have measured the HCFs behind 6 and 20 mm diam tungsten alloy disks, 4 and 2 mm thick and a 4 mm thick steel disk, positioned 15 mm from the source. For each measurement point, the heterogeneity correction factors were also inferred from Monte Carlo simulations, which accurately modeled the experimental geometry. The agreement between measured and calculated HCFs on the average was within 6%. Tungsten alloy disks resulted in about two times greater dose reduction in water (HCF approximately 0.4, for 20 x 4 mm disk) than for a steel disk with the same dimensions (HCF approximately 0.85). Reducing the disk diameter to 6 mm increased the dose transmission up to about 25%. Increasing the source-to-detector distance from 4 to 7 cm caused a change in HCF from 2% to more than 20%, depending on disk material and diameter. The detector artifact effects arising from the finite size and different composition of the TLD chips were determined.

Validation of Monte Carlo dose calculations near 125I sources in the presence of bounded heterogeneities

PURPOSE Dose distributions around low energy (< 60 keV) brachytherapy sources, such as 125I, are known to be very sensitive to changes in tissue composition. Available 125I dosimetry data describe the effects of replacing the entire water medium by heterogeneous material. This work extends our knowledge of tissue heterogeneity effects to the domain of bounded tissue heterogeneities, simulating clinical situations. Our goals are three-fold: (a) to experimentally characterize the variation of dose rate as a function of location and dimensions of the heterogeneity, (b) to confirm the accuracy of Monte Carlo dose calculation methods in the presence of bounded tissue heterogeneities, and (c) to use the Monte Carlo method to characterize the dependence of heterogeneity correction factors (HCF) on the irradiation geometry. METHODS AND MATERIALS Thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLD) were used to measure the deviations from the homogeneous dose distribution of an 125I seed due to cylindrical tissue heterogeneities. A solid water phantom was machined accurately to accommodate the long axis of the heterogeneous cylinder in the transverse plane of a 125I source. Profiles were obtained perpendicular to and along the cylinder axis, in the region downstream of the heterogeneity. Measurements were repeated at the corresponding points in homogeneous solid water. The measured heterogeneity correction factor (HCF) was defined as the ratio of the detector reading in the heterogeneous medium to that in the homogeneous medium at that point. The same ratio was simulated by a Monte Carlo photon transport (MCPT) code, using accurate modeling of the source, phantom, and detector geometry. In addition, Monte Carlo-based parametric studies were performed to identify the dependence of HCF on heterogeneity dimensions and distance from the source. RESULTS Measured and calculated HCFs reveal excellent agreement (< or = 5% average) over a wide range of materials and geometries. HCFs downstream of 20 mm diameter by 10 mm thick hard bone cylinders vary from 0.12 to 0.30 with respect to distance, while for an inner bone cylinder of the same dimension, it varies from 0.72 to 0.83. For 6 mm diameter by 10 mm thick hard bone and inner bone cylinders, HCF varies 0.27-0.58 and 0.77-0.88, respectively. For lucite, fat, and air, the dependence of HCF on the 3D irradiation geometry was much less pronounced. CONCLUSION Monte Carlo simulation is a powerful, convenient, and accurate tool for investigating the long neglected area of tissue composition heterogeneity corrections. Simple one dimensional dose calculation models that depend only on the heterogeneity thickness cannot accurately characterize 125I dose distributions in the presence of bone-like heterogeneities.

Towards two‐dimensional brachytherapy dosimetry using plastic scintillator: New highly efficient water equivalent plastic scintillator materials

Plastic scintillator (PS) has been proposed for both one- and two-dimensional (1D and 2D) dose measurements for radiation therapy applications. For low-energy photon modalities (e.g., brachytherapy), an efficient water equivalent scintillator is needed. To perform 2D measurements, a high localization of the scintillation process is required. Guided by comparison of the mass energy absorption coefficients as a function of energy and of the dose distribution as a function of distance from the radioactive source, as modeled by Monte Carlo photon transport simulation, a small quantity of medium atomic number (Z) atoms (4% Cl) was incorporated in a polyvinyl toluene (PVT) based PS to approximate closely (within 10%) the radiological properties of water in the 20-662 keV energy range. However, the scintillation efficiency of commercial PS mixtures drops as much as 70% when loaded with high atomic number additives. We developed experimental techniques to assess the scintillation efficiency and locality of 15 new PS mixtures. These mixtures differ by the type of the scintillation dyes and the type of compound containing the medium Z atoms (chlorine). To achieve higher material stability, 4-chlorostyrene was used as a loading compound to ensure polymerization with the PVT base. Two of the new PS materials exhibited scintillation efficiencies within 30% of one of the most efficient commercially available products (BC-400), which is not water equivalent at such low energies. These new scintillator materials are promising candidates for the development of an accurate and efficient radiation dosimetry method not only for brachytherapy, but also for superficial and diagnostic applications.

Two-dimensional scatter integration method for brachytherapy dose calculations in 3D geometry

In brachytherapy clinical practice, applicator shielding and tissue heterogeneities are usually not explicitly taken into account. None of the existing dose computational methods are able to reconcile accurate dose calculation in complex three-dimensional (3D) geometries with high efficiency and simplicity. We propose a new model that performs two-dimensional integration of the scattered dose component. The model calculates the effective primary dose at the point of interest and estimates the scatter dose as a superposition of the scatter contributions from pyramid-shaped minibeams. The approach generalizes a previous scatter subtraction model designed to calculate the dose for axial points in simple cylindrically symmetric geometry by dividing the scattering volume into spatial regions coaxial with the source-to-measurement point direction. To allow for azimuthal variation of the primary dose, these minibeams were divided into equally spaced azimuthally distributed pyramidal volumes. The model uses precalculated scatter-to-primary ratios (SPRs) for collimated isotropic sources. Effective primary dose, which includes the radiation scattered in the source capsule, is used to achieve independence from the source structure. For realistic models of the 192Ir HDR and PDR sources, the algorithm agrees with Monte Carlo within 2.5% and for the 125I type 6702 seed within 6%. The 2D scatter integration (2DSI) model has the potential to estimate the dose behind high-density heterogeneities both accurately and efficiently. The algorithm is much faster than Monte Carlo methods and predicts the dose around sources with different gamma-ray energies and differently shaped capsules with high accuracy.

Towards two-dimensional brachytherapy dosimetry using plastic scintillator: localization of the scintillation process

Abstract Detecting the scintillation light coming from a thin sheet of plastic scintillator (PS) provides a promising fast and precise tissue equivalent method for radiation dose measurements in two dimensions. The successful implementation of such technique requires high efficiency, dosimetric tissue equivalence and high localization of the scintillation process. The last is needed to assure that the light photons originating from a pixel of the scintillator sheet correspond to energy deposited in the same pixel. Since no such information is available for PS material with standard or modified chemical composition we have developed two experimental methods for assessing the scintillation locality by measuring the optical spectra and the scintillation light profile (SLP) of PS samples with different thickness. The results of the two types of measurements are consistent with each other and with a simple theoretical model of the energy conversion process. We have demonstrated that comparing the relative intensities of the primary and secondary photon peaks in the optical spectra of the scintillator is a sensitive approach to determine the delocalization of the secondary photon emission. The ratio of the number of primary to secondary photons shows strong dependence on PS dye composition. Two types of plastic scintillator materials were tested and the advantages of one of them for radiation dosimetry are demonstrated.