Astrid M. von der Pütten

THEORY OF COMPANIONS: WHAT CAN THEORETICAL MODELS CONTRIBUTE TO APPLICATIONS AND UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN-ROBOT INTERACTION?

Because it becomes more and more feasible that artificial entities like robots or agents will soon be parts of our daily lives, an essential challenge is to advance the sociability of artifacts. Against this background, a pivotal goal of the Sera project was to develop a theoretical framework for sociable companions as well as for human-artifact interaction. In discussing several levels of sociability from a theoretical point of view, we will critically reflect whether human-companion interaction has to build on basic principles of human-human interaction. Alternative approaches are presented. It is discussed whether a “theory of companions” is necessary and useful and what it should be able to explain and contribute.

Subjective and behavioral presence measurement and interactivity in the collaborative augmented reality game TimeWarp

Presence is usually assessed via a variety of subjective and objective measures. However, constraints often result in subjective measurements using questionnaires as a key method of data collection. In this paper we present a study of 44 participants of a collaborative augmented reality game known as TimeWarp which used both subjective and objective behavioral measures. Behavior as coded from video recordings of one scene of the game and self-reports about feelings of presence were compared. Our findings indicate that pointing behavior and verbal responses to the virtual content are correlated negatively to sense of presence. We further investigated the influence of subjectively perceived interactivity on perceived presence. We found that the interaction possibilities perceived by the participants predicted their experience of social presence with the virtual characters in the game. Furthermore, playing together with another person did not result in decreased social presence of the virtual characters. Implications for presence research are discussed.

Human-Agent and Human-Robot Interaction Theory: Similarities to and Differences from Human-Human Interaction

It will be discussed whether a theory specific for human-robot and human-agent interaction is needed or whether theories from human-human interactions can be adapted. First, theories from human-human interaction will be presented. Then, empirical evidence from human-robot- and human-agent interaction is presented. Research suggests that, from the perspective of the user, interaction with an artificial entity is similar to interaction with fellow humans. Explanations for this treatment of agents/robots in a social way (such as the ethopoeia approach, Nass& Moon, 2000) assume that due to our social nature humans will use their interaction routines also when confronted with artificial entities. Based on this it will be discussed whether theories from human-human-interaction will be a helpful framework also for human-agent/robot interaction, whether amendments will be beneficial or whether, alternatively, a totally new approach is needed.

Living with a robot companion: empirical study on the interaction with an artificial health advisor

The EU project SERA (Social Engagement with Robots and Agents) provided the unique opportunity to collect real field data of people interacting with a robot companion in their homes. In the course of three iterations, altogether six elderly participants took part. Following a multi-methodological approach, the continuous quantitative and qualitative description of user behavior on a very fine-grained level gave us insights into when and how people interacted with the robot companion. Post-trial semi-structured interviews explored how the users perceived the companion and revealed their attitudes. Based on this large data set, conclusions can be drawn on whether people show signs of bonding and how their relation to the robot develops over time. Results indicate large inter-individual differences with regard to interaction behavior and attitudes. Implications for research on companions are discussed.

Does humanity matter? analyzing the importance of social cues and perceived agency of a computer system for the emergence of social reactions during human-computer interaction

Empirical studies have repeatedly shown that autonomous artificial entities elicit social behavior on the part of the human interlocutor. Various theoretical approaches have tried to explain this phenomenon. The agency assumption states that the social influence of human interaction partners (represented by avatars) will always be higher than the influence of artificial entities (represented by embodied conversational agents). Conversely, the Ethopoeia concept predicts that automatic social reactions are triggered by situations as soon as they include social cues. Both theories have been challenged in a 2 × 2 between subjects design with two levels of agency (low: agent, high: avatar) and two interfaces with different degrees of social cues (low: textchat, high: virtual human). The results show that participants in the virtual human condition reported a stronger sense ofmutual awareness, imputed more positive characteristics, and allocated more attention to the virtual human than participants in the text chat conditions. Only one result supports the agency assumption; participants who believed to interact with a human reported a stronger feeling of social presence than participants who believed to interact with an artificial entity. It is discussed to what extent these results support the social cue assumption made in the Ethopoeia approach.

A survey on robot appearances

Against the background of the uncanny valley hypothesis [1] and its conceptual shortcomings this study aims at identifying design characteristics which determine the evaluation of robots. We conducted a web-based survey with standardized pictures of 40 robots which were evaluated by 151 participants. A cluster analysis revealed six clusters of robots. The results are discussed with regard to implications for the uncanny valley hypothesis.

Following the white rabbit: a robot rabbit as vocabulary trainer for beginners of English

The current paper presents a case study conducted to evaluate the robot rabbit Nabaztag functioning as a vocabulary trainer for beginners of English. Hedonic aspects and motivating function, as well as the general usability and overall impression evoked by rabbit, were tested. A group of 18 5th grade students of an English class at a German junior high school were instructed to practice 20 pairs of vocabulary. Ten students were assisted by the speaking robot rabbit, while eight learned by applying an ordinary paper-and-pencil method. Results show that after one week, students who had learned with the Nabaztag had, on average, a higher recall than the control group. Moreover, the evaluation of the hedonic and pragmatic quality of interacting with the rabbit was high, as was the evaluation of both ease of use and perceived usefulness. Students learning with the rabbit were in a better mood afterwards than those who learned by means of the traditional method.

At the Café—Exploration and Analysis of People’s Nonverbal Behavior Toward an Android

Current studies investigating natural human–robot interaction (HRI) in the field concentrate on the analysis of automatically assessed data (e.g., interaction times). What is missing to date is a more qualitative approach to investigate the natural and individual behavior of people in HRI in detail. In a quasi-experimental observational field study, we investigated how people react to an android robot in a natural environment according to the behavior it exhibits. We present data on unscripted interactions between humans and the android robot “Geminoid HI-1” in an Austrian public cafe and subsequent interviews. Data related to the participants’ nonverbal behavior (e.g., attention paid to the robot and proximity) were analyzed. The results show that participants’ behavior toward the android robot, as well as their interview answers, was influenced by the behavior the robot exhibited (e.g., eye contact). In addition, huge inter-individual differences existed in the participants’ behavior. Implications for HRI research are discussed.

Lernen zum Anfassen: Ein Lernroboter in der Schule

Zusammenfassung Der vorliegende Beitrag stellt ein Vokabellernsystem vor, in dem die Körperlichkeit und die Attraktivität sowie die verbale und nonverbale Expressivität des Roboterhasen Nabaztag mit einer zusätzlichen Bildschirmapplikation kombiniert wurde, um Schüler zum Vokabeltraining zu motivieren. Ein integrierter Feedback-Mechanismus greift ergänzend die Idee des one-to-one Tutoring auf. Die Ergebnisse der in einer 5. Klasse durchgeführten Fallstudie zeigen, dass sowohl die pragmatische wie auch die hedonische Qualität der Anwendung von den Nutzern als sehr hoch bewertet wurden. Daneben sind auch die Nützlichkeit und Leichtigkeit im Umgang als sehr hoch eingeschätzt worden. Damit erfüllt die vorge-stellte Anwendung wichtige Grundvoraussetzungen für den erfolgreichen Einsatz eines Roboter-gestützten Lernsystems, das Kindern Spaß bereitet und sie zur erneuten Nutzung motiviert. Abstract The following article presents a vocabulary training application that combines tangibility and attractiveness of the verbally and nonverbally expressive robot rabbit Nabaztag and an on-screen application. An adaptive feedback mechanism rounds off the learning experience. The results of the case study conducted with fifth grade students show that the junior high school students perceived the hedonic and pragmatic quality of interacting with the rabbit as high and considered both, ease of use and perceived usefulness as high. All in all, the application fulfills essential prerequisites for a successful im-plementation of a robot-assisted vocabulary training system that is pleasurable for children and motivates them to repeated use.