Atsushi Shimohata

Enlarged Brain Ventricles and Impaired Neurogenesis in the Ts1Cje and Ts2Cje Mouse Models of Down Syndrome

Down syndrome (DS) is the most common cause of mental retardation. Although structural and neurogenic abnormalities have been shown in the brains of DS patients, the molecular etiology is still unknown. To define it, we have performed structural and histological examinations of the brains of Ts1Cje and Ts2Cje, 2 mouse models for DS. These mice carry different length of trisomic segments of mouse chromosome 16 that are orthologous to human chromosome 21. At 3 months of age, ventricular enlargements were observed in both Ts1Cje and Ts2Cje brains at a similar degree. Both mice also showed decreases of the number of doublecortin-positive neuroblasts and thymidine-analog BrdU-labeled proliferating cells in the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles (LVs) and in the hippocampal dentate gyrus at a similar degree, suggesting impaired adult neurogenesis. Additionally, at embryonic day 14.5, both strains of mice, when compared with diploid littermates, had smaller brains and decreased cortical neurogenesis that could possibly contribute to the ventricular enlargements observed in adulthood. Our findings suggest that the trisomic segment of the Ts1Cje mouse, which is shared with Ts2Cje, contains the genes that are responsible for these abnormal phenotypes and could be relevant to the mental retardation associated with DS.

Increased lipid peroxidation in Down’s syndrome mouse models

Elevated oxidative stress has been suggested to be associated with the features of Down’s syndrome (DS). We previously reported increased oxidative stress in cultured cells from the embryonic brain of Ts1Cje, a mouse genetic DS model. However, since in vivo evidence for increased oxidative stress is lacking, we here examined lipid peroxidation, a typical marker of oxidative stress, in the brains of Ts1Cje and another DS mouse model Ts2Cje with an overlapping but larger trisomic segment. Accumulations of proteins modified with the lipid peroxidation‐derived products, 13‐hydroperoxy‐9Z,11E‐octadecadienoic acid and 4‐hydroxy‐2‐nonenal were markedly increased in Ts1Cje and Ts2Cje brains. Analysis with oxidation‐sensitive fluorescent probe also showed that reactive oxygen species themselves were increased in Ts1Cje brain. However, electron spin resonance analysis of microdialysate from the hippocampus of Ts1Cje showed that antioxidant activity remained unaffected, suggesting that the reactive oxygen species production was accelerated in Ts1Cje. Proteomics approaches with mass spectrometry identified the proteins modified with 13‐hydroperoxy‐9Z,11E‐octadecadienoic acid and/or 4‐hydroxy‐2‐nonenal to be involved in either ATP generation, the neuronal cytoskeleton or antioxidant activity. Structural or functional impairments of these proteins by such modifications may contribute to the DS features such as cognitive impairment that are present in the Ts1Cje mouse.

DSCAM Deficiency Causes Loss of Pre-Inspiratory Neuron Synchroneity and Perinatal Death

Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule (DSCAM) is a neural adhesion molecule that plays diverse roles in neural development. We disrupted the Dscam locus in mice and found that the null mutants (Dscam−/−) died within 24 h after birth. Whole-body plethysmography showed irregular respiration and lower ventilatory response to hypercapnia in the null mutants. Furthermore, a medulla–spinal cord preparation of Dscam−/− mice showed that the C4 ventral root activity, which drives diaphragm contraction for inspiration, had an irregular rhythm with frequent apneas. Optical imaging of the preparation using voltage-sensitive dye revealed that the pre-inspiratory neurons located in the rostral ventrolateral medulla and belonging to the rhythm generator for respiration, lost their synchroneity in Dscam−/− mice. Dscam+/− mice, which survived to adulthood without any overt abnormalities, also showed irregular respiration but milder than Dscam−/− mice. These results suggest that DSCAM plays a critical role in central respiratory regulation in a dosage-dependent manner.

Ts1Cje Down syndrome model mice exhibit environmental stimuli-triggered locomotor hyperactivity and sociability concurrent with increased flux through central dopamine and serotonin metabolism

ABSTRACT Ts1Cje mice have a segmental trisomy of chromosome 16 that is orthologous to human chromosome 21 and display Down syndrome‐like cognitive impairments. Despite the occurrence of affective and emotional impairments in patients with Down syndrome, these parameters are poorly documented in Down syndrome mouse models, including Ts1Cje mice. Here, we conducted comprehensive behavioral analyses, including anxiety‐, sociability‐, and depression‐related tasks, and biochemical analyses of monoamines and their metabolites in Ts1Cje mice. Ts1Cje mice showed enhanced locomotor activity in novel environments and increased social contact with unfamiliar partners when compared with wild‐type littermates, but a significantly lower activity in familiar environments. Ts1Cje mice also exhibited some signs of decreased depression like‐behavior. Furthermore, Ts1Cje mice showed monoamine abnormalities, including increased extracellular dopamine and serotonin, and enhanced catabolism in the striatum and ventral forebrain. This study constitutes the first report of deviated monoamine metabolism that may help explain the basis for abnormal behaviors, including the environmental stimuli‐triggered hyperactivity, increased sociability and decreased depression‐like behavior in Ts1Cje mice. HIGHLIGHTSDown syndrome model Ts1Cje exhibit novelty‐triggered locomotor hyperactivity.Sociability of Ts1Cje mice toward an unfamiliar mouse was increased.Ts1Cje mice showed decreased depression‐like behaviors.DA and 5‐HT overflow and their enhanced metabolism were detected in Ts1Cje mice.Disturbance in DA and/or 5‐HT metabolism may underlie abnormal behaviors in Ts1Cje.

Impairments in social novelty recognition and spatial memory in mice with conditional deletion of Scn1a in parvalbumin-expressing cells

Loss of function mutations in the SCN1A gene, which encodes the voltage-gated sodium channel Nav1.1, have been described in the majority of Dravet syndrome patients presenting with epileptic seizures, hyperactivity, autistic traits, and cognitive decline. We previously reported predominant Nav1.1 expression in parvalbumin-expressing (PV+) inhibitory neurons in juvenile mouse brain and observed epileptic seizures in mice with selective deletion of Scn1a in PV+ cells mediated by PV-Cre transgene expression (Scn1afl/+/PV-Cre-TG). Here we investigate the behavior of Scn1afl/+/PV-Cre-TG mice using a comprehensive battery of behavioral tests. We observed that Scn1afl/+/PV-Cre-TG mice display hyperactive behavior, impaired social novelty recognition, and altered spatial memory. We also generated Scn1afl/+/SST-Cre-KI mice with a selective Scn1a deletion in somatostatin-expressing (SST+) inhibitory neurons using an SST-IRES-Cre knock-in driver line. We observed that Scn1afl/+/SST-Cre-KI mice display no spontaneous convulsive seizures and that Scn1afl/+/SST-Cre-KI mice have a lowered threshold temperature for hyperthermia-induced seizures, although their threshold values are much higher than those of Scn1afl/+/PV-Cre-TG mice. We finally show that Scn1afl/+/SST-Cre-KI mice exhibited no noticeable behavioral abnormalities. These observations suggest that impaired Nav1.1 function in PV+ interneurons is critically involved in the pathogenesis of hyperactivity, autistic traits, and cognitive decline, as well as epileptic seizures, in Dravet syndrome.

Brain ventriculomegaly in Down syndrome mice is caused by Pcp4 dose-dependent cilia dysfunction

Abstract Down syndrome is a leading cause of congenital intellectual disability caused by an additional copy of the chromosome 21. Patients display physiological and morphological changes affecting the brain and its function. Previously we showed that Ts1Cje and Ts2Cje, Down syndrome mouse models carrying overlapping trisomic segments of different length, show similar ventriculomegaly and neurogenesis dysfunction leading to the hypothesis of a cause‐consequence relationship between these phenotypes. However, we here discovered that Ts1Rhr Down syndrome model, carrying an even shorter trisomic segment, was sufficient to trigger ventricular enlargement and ependymal cilia beating deficiency without affecting neurogenesis. We further found that Pcp4 gene on the Ts1Rhr trisomic segment is expressed in ependymal cells, and its resumption to two copies rescued both ventricular enlargement and cilia dysfunction in Ts1Rhr mice. This work underlines a Pcp4‐dependent ciliopathy in Down syndrome brain affecting cerebrospinal fluid flow.

DYRK1A-haploinsufficiency in mice causes autistic-like features and febrile seizures

Mutations and copy number variants affecting DYRK1A gene encoding the dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A are among the most frequent genetic causes of neurodevelopmental disorders including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) associated with microcephaly, febrile seizures and severe speech acquisition delay. Here we developed a mouse model harboring a frame-shift mutation in Dyrk1a resulting in a protein truncation and elimination of its kinase activity site. Dyrk1a+/- mice showed significant impairments in cognition and cognitive flexibility, communicative ultrasonic vocalizations, and social contacts. Susceptibility to hyperthermia-induced seizures was also significantly increased in these mice. The truncation leading to haploinsufficiency of DYRK1A in mice thus recapitulates the syndromic phenotypes observed in human patients and constitutes a useful model for further investigations of the mechanisms leading to ASD, speech delay and febrile seizures.

Potentiation of excitatory synaptic transmission ameliorates aggression in mice with Stxbp1 haploinsufficiency

Genetic studies point to a major role of de novo mutations in neurodevelopmental disorders of intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorders, and epileptic encephalopathy. The STXBP1 gene encodes the syntaxin-binding protein 1 (Munc18-1) that critically controls synaptic vesicle exocytosis and synaptic transmission. This gene harbors a high frequency of de novo mutations, which may play roles in these neurodevelopmental disorders. However, the system and behavioral-level pathophysiological changes caused by these genetic defects remain poorly understood. Constitutional (Stxbp1+/-), dorsal-telencephalic excitatory (Stxbp1fl/+/Emx), or global inhibitory neuron-specific (Stxbp1fl/+/Vgat) mice were subjected to a behavioral test battery examining locomotor activity, anxiety, fear learning, and social interactions including aggression. Furthermore, measurements of local field potentials in multiple regions of the brain were performed. Stxbp1+/- male mice exhibited enhanced aggressiveness and impaired fear learning associated with elevated gamma activity in several regions of the brain including the prefrontal cortex. Stxbp1fl/+/Emx mice showed fear-learning deficits, but neither Stxbp1fl/+/Emx nor Stxbp1fl/+/Vgat mice showed increased aggressiveness. Pharmacological potentiation of the excitatory transmission at active synapses via the systemic administration of ampakine CX516, which enhances the excitatory postsynaptic function, ameliorated the aggressive phenotype of Stxbp1+/- mice. These findings suggest that synaptic impairments of the dorsal telencephalic and subcortical excitatory neurons cause learning deficits and enhanced aggression in Stxbp1+/- mice, respectively. Additionally, normalizing the excitatory synaptic transmission is a potential therapeutic option for managing aggressiveness in patients with STXBP1 mutations.