Attila Çiner

Turkish glaciers and glacial deposits

Abstract Present day glaciers and glacier-related landforms in Turkey occur in 3 major regions: 1. The Taurus Mountain Range (Mediterranean coast and SE Turkey): Two thirds of the present day glaciers are concentrated in the SE part. Among these mountains, Mount Cilo (4135 m) alone supports more than ten glaciers. Here the actual snowline changes between 3400-3600 m and the Last Glacial snowline is estimated to have been at around 2800 m ( Messerli, 1967 ). In the Central part, Aladag (3756 m) and Bolkardag (3524 m) constitute two of the most important mountains where modern glaciers, although very small, are present. Even though there are signs of past glacial activity (Last Glacial snowline is estimated to be around 2200 m), no glaciers are present in the W Taurus Mountains today. 2. The Pontic Mountain Range (Eastern Black Sea coast): The highest peak of the Pontic Range is Mount Kackar (3932 m) where five glaciers are developed. Several other mountains such as Vercenik (3710 m), Bulut (3562 m), Altiparmak (3353 m), Karagol (3107 m) and Karadag (3331 m) also support various glaciers ( Leutelt, 1935 ; Lembke, 1939 ; Blumenthal, 1958 ). The modern snowline elevation is much lower on the north facing slopes (3100-3200 m) compared to the south facing ones (3550 m), because of the effect of humid air masses ( Erinc, 1952a ). The Last Glacial snowline elevation was 2600 m on average. 3. Volcanoes and independent mountain chains scattered across the Anatolian plateau: In the interior of the country, volcanoes such as Mount Agrii (Ararat) (5165 m), with an ice cap of 10 km 2 ; Mount Suphan (4058 m) and Mount Erciyes (3916 m) show signs of glacial activity and active glaciers. On the other hand, Mount Uludag (2543 m), Mount Mercan (3368 m) and Mount Mescid (3239 m) in Central Anatolia also bear traces of past glacial activity. As a whole, very limited data are available on Turkish glaciers, and recent observations indicate a glacier recession at least since from the beginning of the 20th century.

Quaternary glaciations of Turkey

The cosmogenic exposure ages obtained from glacial landforms in several Turkish mountains provided a basis to reconstruct glacio-chronology and paleoclimate of Turkey. Glacier-related landforms occur in three major regions of Turkey; (1) the Taurus Mountains, along the Mediterranean coast and southeast Turkey, (2) mountain ranges along the Eastern Black Sea Region, and (3) volcanoes and independent mountain chains scattered across the Anatolian Plateau. 10Be 26Al and 36Cl ages show that the oldest and most extensive mountain glaciers were developed during the Last Glacial Maximum. Unusual Early Holocene glaciations, dated to 9 ka-10 ka, were also reported from Mount Erciyes and Aladaglar.

Remarkably extensive glaciation and fast deglaciation and climate change in Turkey near the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary

Moraines in the Taurus Mountains of south-central Turkey, dated to latest Pleistocene or earliest Holocene, show that glaciers were extraordinarily large, typical of the Last Glacial Maximum (21 ka), and that rates of glacier retreat and temperature rise exceeded those of the past century. Surface exposure ages of 7 moraines in a valley at altitudes between 1100 m and 3100 m above sea level range from 10.2 ± 0.2 ka to 8.6 ± 0.3 ka, computed using our own production rates and spatiotemporal scaling factors. Hitherto unresolved differences in cosmogenic 36 Cl production-rate estimates can make these ages signifi cantly older, and therefore the analysis presented here focuses on the rate of change and not on the absolute chronology. During deglaciation, the equilibrium line altitude ascended 1430 m and the air temperature rose by 9 °C. Deglaciation occurred in two phases. During the second, faster phase, which lasted 500 yr, the glacier length decreased at an average rate of 1700 m/100 yr, implying a warming rate of 1.44 °C/100 yr, indicating a rapid climate shift marking the onset of the Holocene in Turkey.

Tectonosedimentary Evolution of the Miocene Manavgat Basin, Western Taurides, Turkey

Abstract The Manavgat Basin is a northwest-southeast oriented basin that developed on the eastern side of the Isparta Angle, south of the Late Eocene thrust belt of the western Taurides. The Miocene fill of the basin lies unconformably on an imbricated basement, comprising a Mesozoic para-authocthonous carbonate platform overthrust by the Antalya Nappes and Alanya Massif metamorphics. The sedimentary fill is represented by clasticdominated deposits consisting of, in ascending order, a conglomeratic wedge, reefal shelf carbonates, limy mudstones, and calciturbidites with subordinate breccias and conglomerates. Process-oriented facies analysis of the basin fill indicates a variety of depositional environments ranging from fluvial/alluvial fan and fan-delta complexes through reefal carbonate shelf and forereef slope to slope fan and basin floor. Fluvial/alluvial fan and fan-delta deposits are Burdigalian-Early Langhian in age and represent the initial conglomeratic valley-fill sedimentation during a relative sea-level rise balanced by important sediment supply from relief in the north-northeast hinterland. The continuous relative sea-level rise and a decreasing rate of sediment supply allowed the deposition of transgressive reefal shelf carbonates of Langhian age. Tectonic activity demonstrated by synsedimentary faults resulted in block faulting of the narrow carbonate shelf and foundering of the basin. The rest of the sedimentation consists of the fill of newly created accommodation space. The overall coarsening-upward succession consists of Upper Langhian-Serravallian limy mudstones-calciturbidites and debris flows, overlain by Tortonian coarse-grained fan-delta deposits. The gravity induced character of most of this progradational wedge implies a progressive uplift of the hinterland.

Comments on “Monitoring soil erosion in Cappadocia region (Selime–Aksaray–Turkey)” by Yilmaz et al. (Environ Earth Sci 2012, 66:75–81)

Yilmaz et al. (2012) presented a monitoring survey on soil erosion carried out around fairy chimneys of Cappadocia region of Turkey. They scanned the study area by geodetic robotic total station at five different times and calculated the volume differences in order to find out the total erosion during that given time interval. They finally analyzed the relationship between erosion and meteorological data and proposed that climatic conditions, especially rainfall, are an important eroding agent in the formation of this landscape. Whereas we welcome quantitative erosion surveys that are practically nonexistent in Turkey, the geological and geomorphological descriptions of the study area and scientific background contain vital mistakes that are totally unacceptable. Herein, some important ones are commented upon. Although the aim of Yilmaz et al.’s work is presented as ‘‘the study of the role of erosion of the surrounding soil in the formation of fairy chimneys’’, it is clear from their Figs. 1 and 4, where they show a photograph of the study area, that their work does not deal with any soil formation but rather is an outcrop of eroding ignimbrite. Therefore, the title of their work is misleading to say the least and do not represent their survey topic. On the other hand, even if we assume that the scanned area was covered by soil, which we insist is not the case, we are than entitled to question the use of such a method to measure the fairy chimneys erosion rates where no soil is involved during their formation. During the description of their study area the authors state, ‘‘the region was formed sixty billion years ago’’! It is common knowledge that the age of the Earth is 4.54 ± 0.05 billion years based on evidence from radiometric dating of meteorite material, which is similar to the ages of the oldest known terrestrial and lunar rocks (Dalrymple 2001). We believe that the authors and the reviewers did not see this obvious mistake. However, even if we assume that they meant ‘‘sixty million’’ instead of ‘‘sixty billion’’ they are still very far away from the calculated age of the rocks in the area. The reality is that the volcanism in Cappadocia situated in Central Anatolian Volcanic Province (CAVP), dates back to Late Miocene (around 10 My, My = Million years) to Holocene (Le Pennec et al. 2005; Aydar et al. 2012) (Fig. 1). The authors scientific inconsistencies do not end on the formation age of the study area as they claim that all rocks forming fairy chimneys were produced ‘‘by soft layers of lava and ash erupted from Erciyes, Hasan and Gullu volcanoes’’. Actually, these three stratovolcanoes are mainly Quaternary in age (around 2.5 My) (Aydar et al. 1995; Aydar and Gourgaud 1998; Kurkcuoglu et al. 1998; Şen et al. 2003) while the youngest ignimbrite layer (Kizilkaya Ignimbrite) that is known to form basin-wide mesas in the region is 5.2 My of age (Le Pennec et al. 1994; Aydar et al. 2012), hence was emplaced well before the eruption of these volcanoes. The stratigraphical framework of the region is very well established by several works where Ar–Ar and U–Pb zircon ages between 10 and 5.2 My are proposed for the formation of the ignimbrites that are susceptible to form fairy chimneys (Pasquare 1968; Innocenti et al. 1975; A. Ciner (&) Geological Engineering Department, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey e-mail: aciner@hacettepe.edu.tr

Palaeogeographical reconstruction and management challenges of an archaeological site listed by UNESCO: the case of the Letoon shrine in the Xanthos Plain (Turkey)

Palaeogeographical reconstruction and management challenges of an archaeological site listed by UNESCO: the case of the Letoon shrine in the Xanthos Plain (Turkey) During the Hellenistic period, Xanthos and Letoon were respectively a large city and an important shrine in Lycia. Questions still remain about the geography of the Eşen Çayı delta during the first millennium BC: what were the features of the landscape surrounding the Letoon shrine? Where did the riverbed lie? Our analysis is based on a reconstruction of the geomorphological dynamics at work during the Holocene. These are then compared with historical, archaeological and literary sources. Sedimentary sampling shows that a marine bay was gradually closed during the formation of a coastline spit, which led to the development of a lagoon system. Lagoons and marshes remained predominant characteristics of the plain over a long period. A branch or a former channel of the Eşen Çayı was discovered close to the Letoon shrine. In recent decades, authorities, as well as UNESCO, are now making an effort to manage palaeoenvironmental reconstructions in their promotion of the tourist potential of archaeological sites. We propose a management project for the Letoon site.