Aymeric Spiga

Global climate modeling of the Martian water cycle with improved microphysics and radiatively active water ice clouds

Water ice clouds play a key role in the radiative transfer of the Martian atmosphere, impacting its thermal structure, its circulation, and, in turn, the water cycle. Recent studies including the radiative effects of clouds in global climate models (GCMs) have found that the corresponding feedbacks amplify the model defaults. In particular, it prevents models with simple microphysics from reproducing even the basic characteristics of the water cycle. Within that context, we propose a new implementation of the water cycle in GCMs, including a detailed cloud microphysics taking into account nucleation on dust particles, ice particle growth, and scavenging of dust particles due to the condensation of ice. We implement these new methods in the Laboratoire de Meteorologie Dynamique GCM and find satisfying agreement with the Thermal Emission Spectrometer observations of both water vapor and cloud opacities, with a significant improvement when compared to GCMs taking into account radiative effects of water ice clouds without this implementation. However, a lack of water vapor in the tropics after Ls = 180° is persistent in simulations compared to observations, as a consequence of aphelion cloud radiative effects strengthening the Hadley cell. Our improvements also allow us to explore questions raised by recent observations of the Martian atmosphere. Supersaturation above the hygropause is predicted in line with Spectroscopy for Investigation of Characteristics of the Atmosphere of Mars observations. The model also suggests for the first time that the scavenging of dust by water ice clouds alone fails to fully account for the detached dust layers observed by the Mars Climate Sounder.

'Structure and dynamics of the convective boundary layer on Mars as inferred from large-eddy simulations and remote-sensing measurements'

Structure and dynamics of the convective boundary layer on Mars as inferred from large-eddy simulations and remote-sensing measurements A. Spiga,a,b*F. Forget,a S. R. Lewisb and D. P. Hinsonc aLaboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France bDepartment of Physics and Astronomy, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK cCarl Sagan Center, SETI Institute, Mountain View, California, USA *Correspondence to: A. Spiga, Faculty of Science, Department of Physics and Astronomy, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK. E-mail: a.spiga@open.ac.uk; spiga@lmd.jussieu.fr

The Martian atmospheric boundary layer

The planetary boundary layer (PBL) represents the part of the atmosphere that is strongly influenced by the presence of the underlying surface and mediates the key interactions between the atmosphere and the surface. On Mars, this represents the lowest 10 km of the atmosphere during the daytime. This portion of the atmosphere is extremely important, both scientifically and operationally, because it is the region within which surface lander spacecraft must operate and also determines exchanges of heat, momentum, dust, water, and other tracers between surface and subsurface reservoirs and the free atmosphere. To date, this region of the atmosphere has been studied directly, by instrumented lander spacecraft, and from orbital remote sensing, though not to the extent that is necessary to fully constrain its character and behavior. Current data strongly suggest that as for the Earths PBL, classical Monin-Obukhov similarity theory applies reasonably well to the Martian PBL under most conditions, though with some intriguing differences relating to the lower atmospheric density at the Martian surface and the likely greater role of direct radiative heating of the atmosphere within the PBL itself. Most of the modeling techniques used for the PBL on Earth are also being applied to the Martian PBL, including novel uses of very high resolution large eddy simulation methods. We conclude with those aspects of the PBL that require new measurements in order to constrain models and discuss the extent to which anticipated missions to Mars in the near future will fulfill these requirements.

Winter and spring evolution of northern seasonal deposits on Mars from OMEGA on Mars Express

The OMEGA visible/near-infrared imaging spectrometer on Mars Express has observed the retreat of the northern seasonal deposits during Martian year 27-28 from the period of maximum extension, close to the northern winter solstice, to the end of the retreat at L s 95°. We present the temporal and spatial distributions of both CO 2 and H 2O ices and propose a scenario that describes the winter and spring evolution of the northern seasonal deposits. During winter, the CO 2-rich condensates are initially transparent and could be in slab form. A water ice annulus surrounds the sublimating CO 2 ice, extending over 6° of latitude at L s 320°, decreasing to 2° at L s 350°, and gradually increasing to 4.5° at L s 50°. This annulus first consists of thin frost as observed by the Viking Lander 2 and is then overlaid by H 2O grains trapped in the CO 2-rich ice layer and released during CO 2 sublimation. By L s 50, H 2O ice spectrally dominates most of the deposits. In order to hide the still several tens of centimeters thick CO 2 ice layer in central areas of the cap we propose the buildup of an optically thick top layer of H 2O ice from ice grains previously embedded in the CO 2 ice and by cold trapping of water vapor from the sublimating water ice annulus. The CO 2 ice signature locally reappears between L s 50 and 70. What emerges from our observations is a very active surface-atmosphere water cycle. These data provide additional constraints to the general circulation models simulating the Martian climate. Copyright 2011 by the American Geophysical Union.

Near-tropical subsurface ice on Mars

Near-surface perennial water ice on Mars has been previously inferred down to latitudes of about 45° and could result from either water vapor diffusion through the regolith under current conditions or previous ice ages precipitations. In this paper we show that at latitudes as low as 25° in the southern hemisphere buried water ice in the shallow (<1 m) subsurface is required to explain the observed surface distribution of seasonal CO2 frost on pole facing slopes. This result shows that possible remnants of the last ice age, as well as water that will be needed for the future exploration of Mars, are accessible significantly closer to the equator than previously thought, where mild conditions for both robotic and human exploration lie. Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union.

Recent Ice Ages on Mars: The role of radiatively active clouds and cloud microphysics

Global climate models (GCMs) have been successfully employed to explain the origin of many glacial deposits on Mars. However, the latitude-dependent mantle (LDM), a dust-ice mantling deposit that is thought to represent a recent “Ice Age,” remains poorly explained by GCMs. We reexamine this question by considering the effect of radiatively active water-ice clouds (RACs) and cloud microphysics. We find that when obliquity is set to 35°, as often occurred in the past 2 million years, warming of the atmosphere and polar caps by clouds modifies the water cycle and leads to the formation of a several centimeter-thick ice mantle poleward of 30° in each hemisphere during winter. This mantle can be preserved over the summer if increased atmospheric dust content obscures the surface and provides dust nuclei to low-altitude clouds. We outline a scenario for its deposition and preservation that compares favorably with the characteristics of the LDM.

Aphelion water-ice cloud mapping and property retrieval using the OMEGA imaging spectrometer onboard Mars Express

Mapping of the aphelion clouds over Tharsis and retrieval of their particle size and visible opacity are made possible by the OMEGA imaging spectrometer aboard Mars Express. Observations cover the period from MY26 Ls=330{degree sign} to MY29 Ls=180{degree sign} and are acquired at various local times, ranging from 8AM to 6PM. Cloud maps of the Tharsis region constructed using the 3.1µm ice absorption band reveal the seasonal and diurnal evolution of aphelion clouds. Four distinct types of clouds are identified: morning hazes, topographically controlled hazes, cumulus clouds and thick hazes. The location and time of occurrence of these clouds are analyzed and their respective formation process is discussed. An inverse method for retrieving cloud particle size and opacity is then developed and can only be applied to thick hazes. The relative error of these measurements is less than 30% for cloud particle size and 20% for opacity. Two groups of particles can be distinguished. The first group is found over flat plains and is composed of relatively small particles, ranging in size from 2 to 3.5µm. The second group is characterized by particle sizes of ~5µm which appear to be quite constant over Ls and local time. It is found west of Ascraeus and Pavonis Mons, and near Lunae Planum. These regions are preferentially exposed to anabatic winds, which may control the formation of these particles and explain their distinct properties. The water ice column is equal to 2.9pr.µm on average, and can reach 5.2pr.µm in the thickest clouds of Tharsis.

Scientific rationale for Saturn׳s in situ exploration

Remote sensing observations meet some limitations when used to study the bulk atmospheric composition of the giant planets of our solar system. A remarkable example of the superiority of in situ probe measurements is illustrated by the exploration of Jupiter, where key measurements such as the determination of the noble gases׳ abundances and the precise measurement of the helium mixing ratio have only been made available through in situ measurements by the Galileo probe. This paper describes the main scientific goals to be addressed by the future in situ exploration of Saturn placing the Galileo probe exploration of Jupiter in a broader context and before the future probe exploration of the more remote ice giants. In situ exploration of Saturn׳s atmosphere addresses two broad themes that are discussed throughout this paper: first, the formation history of our solar system and second, the processes at play in planetary atmospheres. In this context, we detail the reasons why measurements of Saturn׳s bulk elemental and isotopic composition would place important constraints on the volatile reservoirs in the protosolar nebula. We also show that the in situ measurement of CO (or any other disequilibrium species that is depleted by reaction with water) in Saturn׳s upper troposphere may help constraining its bulk O/H ratio. We compare predictions of Jupiter and Saturn׳s bulk compositions from different formation scenarios, and highlight the key measurements required to distinguish competing theories to shed light on giant planet formation as a common process in planetary systems with potential applications to most extrasolar systems. In situ measurements of Saturn׳s stratospheric and tropospheric dynamics, chemistry and cloud-forming processes will provide access to phenomena unreachable to remote sensing studies. Different mission architectures are envisaged, which would benefit from strong international collaborations, all based on an entry probe that would descend through Saturn׳s stratosphere and troposphere under parachute down to a minimum of 10 bar of atmospheric pressure. We finally discuss the science payload required on a Saturn probe to match the measurement requirements.

Preparing for InSight: An Invitation to Participate in a Blind Test for Martian Seismicity

The InSight (Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport) lander will deploy a seismic monitoring package on Mars in November 2018. In preparation for the data return, we prepared a blind test in which we invite participants to detect and characterize seismicity included in a synthetic dataset of continuous waveforms from a single station that mimics both the streams of data that will be available from InSight, as well as expected tectonic and impact seismicity and noise conditions on Mars. We expect that the test will ultimately improve and extend the current set of methods that the InSight team plan to use in routine analysis of the Martian dataset.

Stratospheric benzene and hydrocarbon aerosols detected in Saturn’s auroral regions

Context. Saturn’s polar upper atmosphere exhibits significant auroral activity; however, its impact on stratospheric chemistry (i.e. the production of benzene and heavier hydrocarbons) and thermal structure remains poorly documented. Aims. We aim to bring new constraints on the benzene distribution in Saturn’s stratosphere, to characterize polar aerosols (their vertical distribution, composition, thermal infrared optical properties), and to quantify the aerosols’ radiative impact on the thermal structure. Methods. Infrared spectra acquired by the Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) on board Cassini in limb viewing geometry are analysed to derive benzene column abundances and aerosol opacity profiles over the 3 to 0.1 mbar pressure range. The spectral dependency of the haze opacity is assessed in the ranges 680–900 and 1360–1440 cm −1 . Then, a radiative climate model is used to compute equilibrium temperature profiles, with and without haze, given the haze properties derived from CIRS measurements. Results. On Saturn’s auroral region (80 ◦ S), benzene is found to be slightly enhanced compared to its equatorial and mid-latitude values. This contrasts with the Moses & Greathouse (2005, J. Geophys. Res., 110, 9007) photochemical model, which predicts a benzene abundance 50 times lower at 80 ◦ S than at the equator. This advocates for the inclusion of ion-related reactions in Saturn’s chemical models. The polar stratosphere is also enriched in aerosols, with spectral signatures consistent with vibration modes assigned to aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, and presenting similarities with the signatures observed in Titan’s stratosphere. The aerosol mass loading at 80 ◦ S is estimated to be 1−4 × 10 −5 gc m −2 , an order of magnitude less than on Jupiter, which is consistent with the order of magnitude weaker auroral power at Saturn. We estimate that this polar haze warms the middle stratosphere by 6 K in summer and cools the upper stratosphere by 5 K in winter. Hence, aerosols linked with auroral activity can partly account for the warm polar hood observed in Saturn’s summer stratosphere.