B. K. Sharma

Historical, Sociocultural, and Mythological Aspects of Faunal Conservation in Rajasthan

This chapter exhibits the unique history, religions, and sociocultural traditions of the people of Rajasthan which have contributed a great deal in the preservation of wildlife. The ethics of conservation are nurtured by saints and spiritual teachers like Guru Jambheshwarji, the great environmentalist of the fifteenth century and are directly linked with the religion. The temples of animals such as Garuda (Brahmini Kite) at Chittourgarh, Karni mata (the Goddess Durga) temple of Bikaner district, famous for its thousands of rats inhabiting the premises, temples of snake deities like Gogaji and Tejaji in Gogamerhi (Hanumangarh district), and the Mahishasur temple of a buffalo demon who situated at Oriya village near Mount Abu town and festivals for animals like snake worship on Nagpanchmi and calf and cow worship on Bachh-baras present the religious aspects of conservation. Likewise, the sacrifice of animals to please the deities is an age-old tradition among the Rajput community in Rajasthan and despite being banned, it still continues clandestinely even today. Cattle fairs like, Camel fair at Jaisalmer, Donkey fair at Pushkar, and the Elephant fair at Jaipur strongly indicate the sociocultural aspect of faunal linkages to the people of Rajasthan. Birds like Kurjan (Demoiselle Crane), parakeet, Indian PeaFowl and House Crow have been favorite themes of the Rajasthan’s folk music since ages. Interestingly, the ancient literature of Rajasthan mentions elephant, tiger, bear, horse, cat, and many beautiful birds in the context of war, hunting, weather and climate forecasting in addition to romance and agriculture. The chapter also presents a wonderful account of the fauna in retrospect. Asiatic Lion and Indian Cheetah were present in the eighteenth century but vanished due mainly to hunting. Shikar (hunting) was a favorite sport of the erstwhile rulers which always found a place in the itinerary of visiting Viceroys and British officers. Royal families also owned private hunting preserves, most of which were taken up by the government after India’s Independence and developed as wildlife sanctuaries. The chapter mentions about Amrita Devi, a Bishnoi lady with great courage and conviction who along with 366 villagers was martyred in the year 1730 while trying to stop tree-cutting by men of the then ruler at the famous Khejadi village near Jodhpur district. It is for the commitment for protecting wild animals, especially Blackbuck and Chinkara, that the Bishnoi community stands apart from countless other sects and communities in India. On the other hand, hunting is an integral part of the socioeconomic life of most of the tribals like Mogiya, Bawaria, and Pardhi which have been held responsible for the killing of more than 500 tigers and an equal number of leopards in the national parks of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states during the past two decades.

The Majestic Rajasthan: An Introduction

This introductory chapter briefly displays an overall picture of the vivacious state of Rajasthan. Economy of the state is mainly based on natural resources while agriculture, mining, industry, and tourism are the major pillars of revenue. Despite the arid environment and scarcity of water, this desert state is endowed with a glorious historical past, forts and palaces and royal and cultural heritage. Rajasthan’s cultural assets range from a jewelry, colorful attires and turbans, fairs and festivals to music and dances. Yet, the state is lagging behind in rural connectivity in terms of transport and communication, education, women empowerment, health and nutrition, and value addition to its natural resources.

Physiography and Biological Diversity of Rajasthan

This introductory chapter presents an overview of the physiography, zoogeography and biodiversity of the largest state of India, Rajasthan, popularly known as the desert state. Physiographically speaking, Rajasthan is divided into four major regions, namely, the Western Thar Desert, the Aravalli Range with Vindhyan Mountains, the Eastern Plains and the south-eastern Hadoti Plateau. About 640 km long western desert region, extending over an area of 175,000 km2 is covered with stable and shifting sand dunes, barren hills, rocky structural plains, sandy hammocks and low sand streaks. The entire Aravalli Range and hill tracts can be further divided into the north-eastern hill tracts or the Alwar Hills, the central Aravalli Range, the Mewar Hills and the Bhorat Plateau, the Abu Block and the Vindhyan Scarps. The eastern plains of Rajasthan include the lowlands of the Chambal plain, the Banas Plain and the middle Mahi or Chhappan Plain. The Hadoti Plateau forms a part of the Archaean Shield of the Deccan Peninsula and is divided into Vindhyan Scarpments and Deccan lava plateau. Water resources of the state which include Chambal, Banas and Mahi Rivers, their tributaries, the fresh water and salt lakes, have also been emphasised briefly in this chapter. The climatic profile of Rajasthan has been presented as a transition between two major climatic regions of India, the semi-arid east and the arid west. The unique but diverse biotic richness of the state which supports its mesmerising landscape, especially the mysterious desert having its own common, threatened and endemic flora and fauna, reserve areas and wetlands, has been thoroughly described in the chapter.

Unfurling Conservation Strategies, Major Initiatives, and Gaps in Research: A Vision on the Future of the Fauna of Rajasthan under Current and Predicted Threats

This concluding chapter pertains to the conservation efforts being undertaken in Rajasthan at various levels while stressing upon the dire need for filling research gaps in the light of the fast-changing climatic conditions in Rajasthan and their ill effects on the biodiversity. Rajasthan is currently under the strong clutches of desertification due to the world climate crisis, although it has been felt that the Thar Desert was more arid half a century ago but due to IGNP and plantation, its climate has moderated to an extent. An already existing xeric ecosystem, fast pace of urbanization, excessive and unchecked mining, oil and natural gas excavations, and nuclear tests have further altered the situation. In fact, the Indira Gandhi Irrigation Canal Project, popularly known as IGNP, has completely changed the landscape in some regions of the Thar Desert, causing grave changes particularly in the land use patterns. Fauna from the rest of Rajasthan is dwindling in population due to habitat loss, hunting, and habitat fragmentation, resulting in the decline in number of some rare species. It is high time to conduct intensive surveys in order to monitor the altered land-use patterns and assess the status of threatened species in various geographical regions of the state and adopt a concrete conservation planning. Likewise, the reintroduction of tiger at Sariska Tiger Reserve in the Aravallis, establishment of Siberian Crane breeding center at Keoladeo National Park (KNP), protection of grasslands and the state bird Great Indian Bustard, revival of Sambhar Salt lake, conservation planning for the protection of avian diversity, Gharial and Mugger and Ganges River Dolphin at Chambal Riverine system, improvement in the conditions of zoos, wildlife trade, and rapidly declining population of common birds like the house sparrow and crow in urban areas are the issues, based on which new researches and strategies should be planned with multiple approaches. Introduction of innovative forest management technologies, biotechnology, winning economic fronts by making ecotourism more attractive, and rehabilitation of hunting tribes are some other areas which require planning and political will. This chapter also aims at creating awareness about biodiversity conservation in addition to presenting a future picture of the existing fauna of Rajasthan under current and predicted threats. It would also encourage researchers in their transition from “lab to field” and, thus, in adopting the right approach toward conservation of our faunal heritage

Ecotourism in Rajasthan: Prospects and Perspectives

This chapter touches upon the newly emerging concepts of ecotourism and heritage tourism. The state harbors a wealth of mesmerizing palaces and forts, World Heritage sites and hotels, vibrant cultural traditions, and fairs and pilgrimage sites which attract a large number of national and international tourists. In addition, the national parks and tiger reserves, world famous heronry, colorful desert, and wildlife sanctuaries located in diverse habitat draw the attention of wildlifers and nature lovers from around the world. Potential ecotourism sites still in wilderness and unexploited by the rapid pace of civilization have been selected and listed district-wise on the basis of forest areas with rich biodiversity, natural scenic beauty, waterfalls and springs, historical buildings, palaces, forts, and temples. In this chapter, authors have mentioned about the proposed activities and value addition being brought through camping and wide publicity as major strategies for developing these ecotourism sites. The prospects in the Hadoti region of southwestern Rajasthan as a potential ecotourism attraction with birding sites and adventure tourism are also particularly described. To this end, the emphasis of the government has been on community-based ecotourism, encouraging public–private sector participation, and infrastructural development. The major stakeholders of the plan are forest, tourism, and finance departments of the state government, local communities, private sector, NGOs, and academic institutions. Economic benefits to local people and tribal youth, building public support for conservation, and encouraging conservational efforts are some of the key advantages of ecotourism which are described in the text. The authors have looked into the policies and prospects of wildlife tourism in Rajasthan. The issues and problems related to implementation of the Ecotourism Policy by the government along with the formation of an “Ecotourism Advisory Bureau” also find a prominent place in the chapter.

Wildlife Conservation in Rajasthan: The Legal Framework Versus the Wildlife Trade

This chapter profoundly describes the legal framework right from the British period to the present times and the policies and strategies made by the central and the state government for conserving wilderness of the country in general and the state of Rajasthan in particular. The safeguard of forests has been included in the list of fundamental duties of the citizens of India in Article 51(g). The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 and its implications along with the amendments of 1986, 1991, 2000, 2003, 2006, and 2008 have also been presented chronically in this chapter. Unfortunately, deforestation and other activities detrimental to nature conservation are still going on in the state due to the negligence of competent authorities in implementing the laws. The Government of India has also constituted the National Board of Wildlife, National Tiger Conservation Authority, Other Endangered Species Crime Control Bureau, and Tiger Conservation Foundation under various sections and Amendment Acts of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Likewise, the state government has also constituted the State Board of Wildlife, Advisory Committee, Conservation Reserve Management Committee, Steering Committee for community reserves, State Biodiversity Board, Tiger Task Force, or State Empowerment Committee under these Acts. Under Section 4 of the Act, the state government has got the power to appoint an honorary wildlife warden. The implication of laws has been in bad shape during 1980–1995, a crucial period for wildlife particularly for the carnivores and Schedule I animals due to heavy demand from western countries for their fur, skin, bones, and meat. The ill-famed wildlife crime cases from the state are the Sansar Chand’s case of international wildlife smuggling responsible for the Sariska debacle, trade of critically endangered animals, Peregrine (resident species) and Shaheen falcon (migratory) on the border of Jaisalmer district, recovery of 250 kg elephant tusks (ivory) by the police in Jaipur, film star Salman Khan’s case for killing Blackbuck and Chinkara in Jodhpur district, and Kalia Bawaria case—a tribal responsible for the killings of a large number of panthers. Authors have also discussed the loopholes in the laws, taking advantage of which a maximum number of accused are discharged with minimum penalty and sentences.

Major Canids of Rajasthan

This chapter presents the status report of Dhole or Wild Dog and a brief account of the Indian Gray Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) belonging to family Canidae in Rajasthan which is considered as Endangered mammal of India. Out of the three subspecies of Wild Dog known in India, the race known from the geographic limits of Rajasthan is Cuon alpinus dukhunensis or Dhole. Once upon a time, this species was present in the forests of Ajmer, Alwar, Baran, Chittourgarh, Pali, Pratapgarh, Sawai Madhopur, and Udaipur districts. Dhole was reported from Sariska and Ranthambhore National Parks and Shahabad zone during 1980–1990. To and fro movements of wild dog were recorded between forest areas of Sawai Madhopur and Baran districts and the surrounding areas of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states of India. Habitat loss, rapid decline in prey species, and human-animal conflicts are described as the major reasons of the extermination of this species. No confirmed records of its presence in the state during the running decade are available. The Indian wolf was present in various habitats of Barmer, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Nagour, Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Churu, Jalore, Pali, Bikaner, Udaipur, Rajsamand, Jaipur, Ajmer, Dungarpur, Alwar, and Chittourgarh districts of the state about forty years ago, but now, they are rare in most of their distribution ranges. At present, Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the best sites in Rajasthan to observe them where they are also breeding successfully. The major conservation threats to this species such as habitat loss, food scarcity, and human-animal conflict have been discussed in the text. The two other canids, namely, Golden Jackal Canis aureus and Indian Fox Vulpes bengalensis, have also been discussed in brief.

Ophidians of Rajasthan

The chapter briefly presents diversity and distribution of the Ophidiofauna of Rajasthan in various ecological regions. Out of a total of 275 snake species occurring in India, 34 species belonging to six families, namely, Typhlopidae, Pythonidae, Boidae, Colubridae, Elapidae, and Viperidae have been reported from Rajasthan. Of them, only six species are venomous, seven are mildly venomous, and 21 species are of the nonvenomous variety. IUCN categorizes eight snakes as Low Risk Least Concern (LR-LC), another 22 as Low Risk but considered Near Threatened (LR-NT), and one species as Vulnerable (VU). Common serpent taxa like Brahminy Worm Snake, Common Sand Boa, Red Sand Boa, Indian Rat Snake, Common Wolf Snake and three venomous species, namely, Common Krait, Spectacled Cobra, and Saw-scaled Viper are widespread in the state of Rajasthan. Keoladeo National Park (KNP), Bharatpur is an excellent site to observe the Indian Rock-Python. Conservation threats such as increase in agricultural and urban areas and killing of snakes out of fear and recommendations for their protection have also been discussed along with the myths about snakes. No distribution mapping and proper taxonomical studies of the snake species found in the state have been done so far in the recent past.

In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation: Protected Area Network and Zoos of Rajasthan

The astonishingly diverse wildlife of Rajasthan and the varied ecological habitats of the desert, wetlands, and rivers have supported its proud people for centuries. Focusing on in situ conservation efforts in the state, an elaborate account of the large number of sanctuaries and national parks, most of which existed as the hunting reserves and private zoos of former kings has been aptly described in the chapter. At present, there are three national parks and 25 wildlife sanctuaries in Rajasthan covering 2.80% of the total geographical area of the state. Ranthambhore National Park and Sariska Tiger Reserve are known the world over for their tigers while Keoladeo National Park (KNP) and Sambhar Salt Lake are the two Ramsar Sites of Rajasthan. Keoladeo is a World Heritage site too. The state treasures three conservation reserves and one eco-sensitive zone. Besides, ten deer parks and seven medicinal plant conservation areas also exist in the state. KNP and Sajjangarh Wildlife Sanctuaries are the walled protected areas (PAs) to ensure better safety of the wildlife while the National Chambal Water Sanctuary is the only ravine system of Rajasthan. Extinction of tigers in Sariska Tiger Reserve during 2005 has been the biggest wakeup call in the country’s conservation history. The rapidly declining faunal diversity and other individual problems prevailing in most of the PAs reflect unsustainable development. Authors also highlight ex situ conservation and the ongoing breeding programs in the zoos of Rajasthan. The existing zoos of the state are not in a good condition except the Jaipur Zoo and shifting of them in their respective neighboring biological parks is currently being undertaken. This chapter also reveals the present status of zoos in Rajasthan and their role in conserving threatened fauna. Current status of the fauna, threats, issues, and future planning for the ecological recovery of the PAs are also discussed in this chapter.