Badr Abdullah

Theoretical Basis and Application for Measuring Pork Loin Drip Loss Using Microwave Spectroscopy

During cutting and processing of meat, the loss of water is critical in determining both product quality and value. From the point of slaughter until packaging, water is lost due to the hanging, movement, handling, and cutting of the carcass, with every 1% of lost water having the potential to cost a large meat processing plant somewhere in the region of €50,000 per day. Currently the options for monitoring the loss of water from meat, or determining its drip loss, are limited to destructive tests which take 24–72 h to complete. This paper presents results from work which has led to the development of a novel microwave cavity sensor capable of providing an indication of drip loss within 6 min, while demonstrating good correlation with the well-known EZ-Driploss method (R2 = 0.896).

Assessing Water-Holding Capacity (WHC) of Meat Using Microwave Spectroscopy

Water-holding capacity (WHC) is the ability of muscle to retain naturally occurring moisture in meat. WHC is a growing problem in the meat industry affecting yield and quality of the meat. Numerous methods have been applied to determine WHC such as the bag drip method and filter paper compression. However, such methods of measuring WHC/drip loss are time-consuming. This chapter reviews some of the current methods used for determination of WHC. The chapter will also present a novel method to measure drip loss and hence determine WHC using a microwave cavity. The cavity is first modeled using Ansys High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS) which is a 3D full wave EM field simulation package that can be used to design microwave structures. The cavity is then constructed, tested and evaluated in LJMU laboratories. Results obtained using different types of meat such as; pork, chicken, beef and lamb are presented and discussed. Attained results indicate that determination of WHC using microwave spectroscopy is a promising alternative to the exciting methods.

Water-holding capacity assessment of meat using an electromagnetic sensing method

The loss of water from fresh meat (drip loss) has a considerable influence on its properties. High drip loss will affect both the yield and quality of meat. It may lead to a large reduction in financial output, nutritional value as well as consumer appeal. Water-holding capacity (WHC) is the ability of muscle to retain naturally occurring moisture in meat. Current methods used to estimate WHC of postmortem muscle by means of measuring drip loss are time-consuming. This paper highlights current methods used to measure WHC and drip loss in meat. The paper will also present a novel method to measure drip loss and hence determine WHC using a microwave cavity. The cavity is first modelled using Ansys High Frequency Structure Simulator (HFSS). The cavity is then constructed, tested and evaluated in LJMU laboratories. The results obtained using different types of meat such as; pork, chicken, beef and lamb are presented and discussed in this paper. The results indicate that determination of WHC using microwave spectroscopy is a promising alternative to the existing methods.

Defect detection of the weld bead based on electromagnetic sensing

Characterization of flaws of weld bead is imperative for high-quality welding. Methods of weld bead inspection include radiographic, ultrasonic and vision inspection. However, such methods are costly and time consuming. The proposed sensor is light, low-cost and fast. This paper summarizes our work on weld bead monitoring and defect detection using an electromagnetic sensor. Measurements are acquired in the form of S-Parameters, specifically measuring changes in the reflected coefficient S11. The weld bead is scanned using the sensor and any form of weld bead defection such as undercutting and excessive penetration is detected and identified.

Non-invasive Monitoring of Glycogen in Real-Time Using an Electromagnetic Sensor

This work presents a novel non-invasive electromagnetic sensor operating at microwave frequencies for real-time monitoring of glycogen in-vitro, developed for forthcoming human trails. Skeletal muscle glycogen stores are a key indicator of athletic performance in activities requiring high levels of energy supply. However, glycogen stores are limited, and depletion can lead to fatigue and reductions in exercise intensity. Thus, athletes need to ensure optimal glycogen synthesis through adapted carbohydrate intake. Real-time monitoring of glycogen stores would allow the optimisation of nutritional strategies (mainly CHO intake) to maintain energy supply and high performance. However, invasive muscle biopsies remain the gold standard method of analysis, only providing a snapshot in time. Glycogen from oyster mixed into a water solution was used to manipulate concentrations observed in healthy humans ranging from 0–400 mmol/L. The electromagnetic sensor used in this study swept frequencies between 10 MHz and 4 GHz, an ideal range to locate any possible frequencies that match glycogens electromagnetic footprint. Data produced from the scattering parameter S11 identified a strong linear correlation between glycogen (mmol/L) and S11 (dBm), r = 0.9, p = ≤0.002, with a R2 = 0.87 at 2.11 GHz. This book chapter reports the first significant data that an electromagnetic sensor can successfully monitor change in glycogen concentration. This provides an encouraging basis for future work, as practical non-invasive method for in vivo monitoring of glycogen in human skeletal muscle. The progression of this research will be to analyse the sensor during different glycogen depleting exercise trials in human subjects.

Non-invasive measurement of blood lactate in humans using microwave sensors

There is a growing demand for non-invasive point of care devices to monitor metabolites in blood such as lactate. In hospital environments, having such tools would reduce the risk of infection, increase the frequency of measurement and ensure timely intervention only when necessary. In sports situations, such tools will enhance training of athletes, and enable more effecting training regimes to be prescribed. This work demonstrates the use of novel electromagnetic wave lactate sensors on cyclists, 34 in total, in a controlled environment. Sensors attached to the arm and legs of participants gathered spectral data, blood samples were measured using a Lactate Pro V2, as well as temperature and heart rate data being collected. Using pairwise mutual information and neural networks, a predictive model is shown to give a good correlation (R = 0.78) between the standard invasive and novel non-invasive microwave based blood lactate measurements, with an error of 13.4% in the range of 0–12 mmol/L.

A Novel Method for Monitoring Structural Metallic Materials Using Microwave NDT

This book chapter describes a preliminary study carried out using EM wave technology within the microwave region to detect defects in metallic materials, such as materials used in building structures and vehicle platforms. The measurement system used in this research study makes use of the low power microwave energy over the frequency range of 300 MHz and 6 GHz. Main metallic defects such as cracking and corrosion in metal sheets are studied extensively in this research study. However, the system can also be used to detect other defects such as weld bead defects. The proposed EM wave NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) system will be integrated into a wide variety of structural elements (e.g. automotive and construction) and will provide continuous real-time structural health monitoring of the materials. The system will be able to provide information related to the presence, type and location of damage or defects. Two sensors are presented here for defect detection and monitoring; a rectangular patch structure and an interdigitated electrode structure. Experimental results demonstrate that the presence of defects such as cracks near the surface of the sensor elicit a change in sensor response.