Barbara A. Knuth

Risk-based consumption advice for farmed Atlantic and wild Pacific salmon contaminated with dioxins and dioxin-like compounds

We reported recently that several organic contaminants occurred at elevated concentrations in farmed Atlantic salmon compared with concentrations of the same contaminants in wild Pacific salmon [Hites et al. Science 303:226–229 (2004)]. We also found that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), toxaphene, dieldrin, dioxins, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers occurred at higher concentrations in European farm-raised salmon than in farmed salmon from North and South America. Health risks (based on a quantitative cancer risk assessment) associated with consumption of farmed salmon contaminated with PCBs, toxaphene, and dieldrin were higher than risks associated with exposure to the same contaminants in wild salmon. Here we present information on cancer and noncancer health risks of exposure to dioxins in farmed and wild salmon. The analysis is based on a tolerable intake level for dioxin-like compounds established by the World Health Organization and on risk estimates for human exposure to dioxins developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Consumption of farmed salmon at relatively low frequencies results in elevated exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like compounds with commensurate elevation in estimates of health risk.

From clients to stakeholders: A philosophical shift for fish and wildlife management

Abstract Fish and wildlife management in North America has been experiencing a fundamental philosophical shift among professional managers and policy makers about who are the beneficiaries of management. This has been reflected in broadening notions of who should be considered in decision making; not just traditional clients who pay for and receive services of managers, but all stakeholders in fish and wildlife management. The term “stakeholder”; has emerged to represent any citizen potentially affected by or having a vested interest (a stake) in an issue, program, action or decision leading to an action. The stakeholder approach in management decision making recognizes a larger set of beneficiaries of management (including, in concept, future generations) than the traditional concepts of constituencies and clients, or customers, a term currently popular among fish and wildlife agencies. The stakeholder approach requires: (1) identification of important stakeholders, (2) flexibility in selection of method...

Social Networks and Community-Based Natural Resource Management

We conducted case studies of three successful examples of collaborative, community-based natural resource conservation and development. Our purpose was to: (1) identify the functions served by interactions within the social networks of involved stakeholders; (2) describe key structural properties of these social networks; and (3) determine how these structural properties varied when the networks were serving different functions. The case studies relied on semi-structured, in-depth interviews of 8 to 11 key stakeholders at each site who had played a significant role in the collaborative projects. Interview questions focused on the roles played by key stakeholders and the functions of interactions between them. Interactions allowed the exchange of ideas, provided access to funding, and enabled some stakeholders to influence others. The exchange of ideas involved the largest number of stakeholders, the highest percentage of local stakeholders, and the highest density of interactions. Our findings demonstrated the value of tailoring strategies for involving stakeholders to meet different needs during a collaborative, community-based natural resource management project. Widespread involvement of local stakeholders may be most appropriate when ideas for a project are being developed. During efforts to exert influence to secure project approvals or funding, however, involving specific individuals with political connections or influence on possible sources of funds may be critical. Our findings are consistent with past work that has postulated that social networks may require specific characteristics to meet different needs in community-based environmental management.

Education programs for reducing American black bear–human conflict: indicators of success?

Abstract Education programs designed to reduce conflicts between American black bears (Ursus americanus) and humans are often implemented by diverse groups of wildlife practitioners who may devote significant resources to these programs, yet little has been done to characterize the content, structure, and effectiveness of these programs. We review 6 education programs in North America. We build on a common performance indicator used in 5 of 6 programs—a reduction in the number of bear–related complaints to wildlife authorities—and suggest that practitioners incorporate other explanatory variables such as human dimensions, weather, natural food, or number of bears harvested. Some of these explanatory variables draw on potentially existing databases; others require new databases. If education programs are to remain an integral part of bear conservation and management, evaluation is essential to understand the ability of such programs to reduce conflict and encourage coexistence between people and bears.

Success of citizen advisory committees in consensus‐based water resources planning in the great lakes basin

Abstract Advocates for public involvement in environmental planning often herald the use of consensus building among diverse interests to improve decision making. The 42 Great Lakes “Areas of Concern”; use broadly representative citizen advisory committees that work toward consensus about appropriate cleanup actions for affected communities. In 1990, the contributions of these committees and the quality of the public involvement experience were evaluated through four in‐depth case studies using site visits, personal and telephone interviews, document review, and mail questionnaires. Although consensus on planning decisions was rarely reached, the committees generally supported the decisions and perceived the decision‐making process as fair and open. There was a high level of satisfaction with the planning process, and most committee members felt their individual goals were being at least partially met. Participation on a committee proved to be a valuable educational experience for most involved, which may...

Risk Assessment, Risk Management, and Fish Consumption Advisories in the United States

Abstract Differences among states in the procedures used to formulate fish consumption advisories and increased use of cancer-risk-based advisories are sources of confusion for fishery professionals and anglers. One of the most controversial aspects of fish consumption advisories is the accuracy of their estimates of risk. Unfortunately, our ability to detect trace concentrations of contaminants in the environment far surpasses our ability to accurately predict the effects of these contaminants on human health. Mathematical models are most frequently used to estimate the cancer risk of low levels of contaminants to humans. At best these models give a crude estimate of the health effects. Consequently, as fishery professionals, we must do a better job of informing anglers about these advisories. We can put the health risks involved in eating contaminated fish in perspective by comparing them with other types of risks. We can also inform anglers of various alternative behaviors that will decrease the health...

Sportfish consumption patterns of Lake Ontario anglers and the relationship to health advisories.

Abstract Accurate fish consumption estimates are necessary to determine the risks anglers face associated with consumption of contaminated fish and to assess compliance with fish consumption health advisories. Based on a 12-month diary methodology, anglers who fished Lake Ontario in 1992 consumed an average of 30.3 fish meals in 1992, of which 28% were sport-caught. When meal size was factored in, an estimated 17.9 g of fish per day from all sources were consumed by Lake Ontario anglers. Virtually all diary participants (>95%) who fished Lake Ontario in 1992 said they were aware of the New York State health advisory. However, 36% of 1992 Lake Ontario anglers consumed fish in excess of the fish consumption limits recommended for Lake Ontario; 14% ate fish from Lake Ontario but did not exceed limits recommended in the advisory; the remainder (50%) did not consume any fish from Lake Ontario in 1992. Furthermore, 90% of those who actually consumed over the limit said they believed their consumption was within...

Refining our vision of citizen participation: Lessons from a moose reintroduction proposal

We evaluated the conceptual basis of a citizen participation program that was part of a process used to decide whether or not to reintroduce moose to northern New York. We used criticisms of liberal political theory to illustrate the potential weaknesses of basing policy decisions mainly on citizens’ preferences. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) determined that it would make its decision about whether to reintroduce moose to northern New York on the basis of citizens ‘ preferences. This strongly influenced how DEC designed its citizen participation strategies. The strategies designed were appropriate for measuring citizens’ preferences, but not for encouraging citizens to develop informed opinions. We argue that for some natural resource policy decisions an expanded vision of citizen participation is necessary. Such a vision should be consistent with the work of Mark Sagoff on the role of values versus preferences, and should seek to discover what citizens think is right a...

An Angler Typology Based on Angler Fishing Preferences

Abstract The purpose of our study was to identify distinct types of anglers with different preferences for fishing opportunities, focusing on anglers in New York State. The sample of anglers who responded to a large statewide survey was randomly assigned to two subsamples (N 1 = 1,769 and N 2 = 1,784) to allow for cross validation of the cluster analysis used to determine angler types. Using a scale that measured basic fishing preferences such as desire for catch, skill development, and fish consumption, we identified seven types of anglers. These types were further described and validated by means of a more specific fishing-preferences scale measuring variables such as the type of water, tackle, fishing methods, and sites preferred. Angler types ranged from the largest groups, namely, skilled, coldwater, fish consumers (24%) and low-skilled, warmwater, fish consumers (17%), to the smallest group, namely, skilled, coldwater, stream anglers (6%). In general, we found that anglers were fishing in the areas ...

Assessing the relative importance of recall bias and nonresponse bias and adjusting for those biases in statewide angler surveys

Abstract Accurate information about angler effort and expenditures, obtained at a reasonable cost, is very important to fisheries managers and planners. Several sources of systematic bias in measurement can affect estimates of participation. We used regression analysis to examine nonresponse and recall bias. We compared respondents’ estimates of days fished based on a 12‐month‐recall mail survey, its nonrespondent phone follow‐up, and a quarterly phone survey and found that both nonresponse and recall bias significantly and almost equally influenced estimates of days fished. We calculated a combined recall and nonresponse bias correction factor of 29% for deriving estimates of days fished based on the 12‐month‐recall mail questionnaire. Further work is needed to ascertain the generalizability of this correction factor.