Barbara Haas

Survival of the fittest: the hidden cost of undertriage of major trauma.

BACKGROUNDnInjured patients cared for in trauma centers have a lower risk of death than those cared for in nontrauma centers. However, many patients are transported to a non-trauma center after injury (undertriaged) and require transfer to trauma center care. Previous analyses of undertriage focused only on survivors to trauma center care and were potentially subject to survivor bias. Using a novel population-based design, we evaluated the true mortality cost of undertriage.nnnSTUDY DESIGNnWe used a retrospective cohort design and included all severely injured patients surviving to reach an emergency department within the province of Ontario, Canada. Those patients who were triaged to a non-trauma center as their first hospital exposure were the Undertriage cohort. Undertriage cohort patients were either transferred to a trauma center (Transfer cohort) or died before transfer could be accomplished (emergency department-death cohort). Patients that were transported directly from the scene of injury to a trauma center represented the Direct cohort. Thirty-day mortality in undertriaged patients was analyzed using two approaches: allowing for survivor bias (Transfer versus Direct) and without survivor bias (Undertriage versus Direct).nnnRESULTSnAmong 11,398 patients, 66% were transported directly to a trauma center and 30% were transferred. Four percent died before transfer (22% of all deaths). Reproducing approaches that ignore survivor bias, mortality in the Transfer and Direct cohorts was equivalent. However, unbiased assessment demonstrated that mortality was significantly higher in the Undertriage cohort than the Direct cohort (odds ratio = 1.24; 95% CI, 1.10-1.40).nnnCONCLUSIONSnUndertriage after major trauma is associated with substantial mortality. These data suggest a need to design strategies to improve triage to trauma center.

The mortality benefit of direct trauma center transport in a regional trauma system: a population-based analysis.

BACKGROUND By ensuring timely access to trauma center (TC) care, well-organized trauma systems have the potential to significantly reduce injury-related mortality. However, undertriage continues to be a significant problem in many regional trauma systems. Taking a novel, population-based approach, we estimated the potential detrimental impact of undertriage to a non-TC (NTC) within a regional system. METHODS We performed a population-based, retrospective cohort study of TC effectiveness in a region with urban, suburban, and rural areas. Data were derived from administrative databases capturing all emergency department deaths and admissions in the region. Adult motor vehicle collision occupants presenting to any emergency department in the study region were included (2002–2010). Data were limited to patients with severe injury. The exposure of interest was initial triage destination (TC or NTC), regardless of later transfer to TC. Mortality was compared across groups, using an instrumental variable analysis to adjust for confounding. RESULTS Among 6,341 motor vehicle collision occupants, 45% (n = 2,857) were triaged from the scene of injury to a TC. Among patients transported from the scene to a NTC, 57% (n = 2,003) were transferred to a TC within 24 hours of initial evaluation. Compared with patients triaged to a NTC, adjusted mortality was lower among patients triaged directly to a TC, both at 24 hours (odds ratio: 0.58, 95% confidence interval: 0.41–0.84) and at 48 hours (odds ratio: 0.68, 95% confidence interval: 0.48–0.96). A trend toward reduced mortality with TC triage was also observed at 7 and 30 days. CONCLUSIONS Our data are population-based evidence of the early benefits of direct triage to TC. Although many surviving patients are later transferred to a TC, initial triage to a NTC is associated with at least a 30% increase in mortality in the first 48 hours after injury. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Therapeutic study, level IV.

Three thousand seven hundred thirty-eight posttraumatic pulmonary emboli: a new look at an old disease

Objective:This study was undertaken to determine the current incidence of pulmonary embolism (PE) and its attributable mortality after injury. Background:Despite compliance with prophylactic measures, PE remains a threat to postinjury recovery. We hypothesized that the liberal use of chest computed tomography after injury has resulted in an increased rate of detection of PE but that the mortality attributable to PE has decreased over the past decade. We also postulated that the risk factors for posttraumatic PE might be different from those for deep venous thrombosis (DVT). Methods:We examined demographics, injury data, risk factors, and outcomes from patients with DVT and PE compiled in the recent years (2007–2009) in the National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB). For comparison, we used patient data entered into NTDB from 1994 to 2001. Statistical models were created to examine the predictors of DVT and PE and PE-related mortality. Results:Among 888,652 patients in the current NTDB cohort, there were 9398 episodes of DVT (1.06%) and 3738 of PE (0.42%). Although many risk factors overlapped, a severe chest injury (Abbreviated Injury Score ≥ 3) conferred a much higher risk of PE than DVT. When comparing results from centers that had contributed to both data sets, there was a more than 2-fold increase in PE occurrence in the current cohort (0.49% vs 0.21%, P < 0.01) but with a significant reduction in PE-adjusted mortality (odds ratio, 4.08 vs 2.42). Conclusions:The reported incidence of PE after trauma has more than doubled in recent years, while the PE-associated mortality has significantly decreased, suggesting that we are identifying a different disease entity or stage. Chest injuries convey a substantial risk for PE, a risk not likely to be diminished by leg compression devices or vena cava filters.

Assessing the impact of the trauma team training program in Tanzania.

BACKGROUNDnIn sub-Saharan Africa, injury is responsible for more deaths and disability-adjusted life years than AIDS and malaria combined. The trauma team training (TTT) program is a low-cost course designed to teach a multidisciplinary team approach to trauma evaluation and resuscitation. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of TTT on trauma knowledge and performance of Tanzanian physicians and nurses; and to demonstrate the validity of a questionnaire assessing trauma knowledge.nnnMETHODSnThis is a prospective study of physicians and nurses from Dar es Salaam undergoing TTT (n = 20). Subjects received a precourse test and, after the course, an alternate postcourse test. The equivalence and construct validity of these 15-item multiple-choice questionnaires was previously demonstrated. After the course, subjects were divided into four teams and underwent a multiple injuries simulation, which was scored with a trauma resuscitation simulation assessment checklist. A satisfaction questionnaire was then administered. Test data are expressed as median score (interquartile ratio) and were analyzed with the Wilcoxons signed rank test.nnnRESULTSnAfter the TTT course, subjects improved their scores from 9 (5-12) to 13 (9-13), p = 0.0004. Team performance scores for the simulation were all >80%. Seventy-five percent of subjects were very satisfied with TTT and 90% would strongly recommend it to others and would agree to teach future courses.nnnCONCLUSIONSnAfter completion of TTT, there was a significant improvement in trauma resuscitation knowledge, based on results from a validated questionnaire. Trauma team performance was excellent when assessed with a novel trauma simulation assessment tool. Participants were very supportive of the course.

Identifying targets for potential interventions to reduce rural trauma deaths: a population-based analysis.

BACKGROUNDnRural environments have consistently been characterized by high injury mortality rates. Although injury prevention efforts might be directed to reduce the frequency or severity of injury in rural environments, it is plausible that interventions directed to improve injury care in the rural settings might also play a significant role in reducing mortality. To test this hypothesis, we set out to examine the relationship between rurality and the setting in which patient death was most likely to occur.nnnMETHODSnThis is a population-based retrospective cohort study evaluating all trauma deaths occurring in the province of Ontario, Canada, over the interval 2002 to 2003. Patient cohorts were defined by their potential to access trauma center care using two different approaches, rurality and timely access to trauma center care.nnnRESULTSnThere were 3,486 deaths over the study interval, yielding an overall injury mortality rate of 14.6 per 100,000 person-years. Overall, more than half of deaths occurred before reaching an emergency department (ED). Prehospital deaths were twice as likely in the most rural locations and in those with limited access to timely trauma center care. However, among patients surviving long enough to reach hospital, there was a threefold increase in the risk of ED death among those injured in a region with limited access to trauma center care.nnnCONCLUSIONSnWe demonstrate that a significant proportion of deaths occur in rural EDs. This study provides new insights into rural trauma deaths and suggests the potential value of targeted interventions at the policy and provider level to improve the delivery of preliminary trauma care in rural environments.

Survival Advantage in Trauma Centers: Expeditious Intervention or Experience?

BACKGROUNDnTrauma patients who receive care at designated trauma centers have a decreased risk of death, but the processes of care that lead to improved outcomes are unknown. We set out to examine the relationship between trauma center care, rapidity of assessment and intervention, and mortality among trauma patients with indications for immediate operative intervention.nnnSTUDY DESIGNnData were collected from a multicenter prospective cohort study of adult patients cared for in trauma centers (TC) and nondesignated centers (NTC). From this cohort, we identified patients with two patterns of injury: hypotensive penetrating trauma (PT) and blunt traumatic brain injury (TBI) with mass effect. Times from admission to relevant interventions were assessed, as were relative risks of in-hospital death in TC compared with NTC. Relative risks were adjusted for differences in case mix using propensity analysis.nnnRESULTSnAmong 1,331 patients who met inclusion criteria, 23.5% died in hospital. Relative risk of death was 0.61 (95% CI, 0.43 to 0.86) among patients managed at TC compared with those admitted to NTC. This survival advantage was greatest among patients in the PT group managed at TC (relative risk: 0.43; 95% CI, 0.19 to 0.94). Relative risk of death at TC among patients in the TBI group was 0.72 (95% CI, 0.50 to 1.0). Within the first 24 hours of admission, however, there was no statistically significant difference between median times to radiographic assessment or operative intervention at TC as compared with other hospitals.nnnCONCLUSIONSnRisk of death is considerably lower among patients requiring early operative intervention if they are treated at a designated Level I trauma center. These outcomes are not a result of more rapid assessment and intervention alone, and emphasize the complex factors that contribute to the survival benefit of trauma center care.

An evaluation of a proactive geriatric trauma consultation service.

Objective:To describe and evaluate an inpatient geriatric trauma consultation service (GTCS). Background:Delays in recognizing the special needs of older trauma patients may result in suboptimal care. The GTCS is a proactive geriatric consultation model aimed at preventing and managing age-specific complications and discharge planning for all patients 60 years or older admitted to the St Michaels Hospital Trauma Service. Methods:This was a before and after case series of patients admitted pre-GTCS (March 2005–August 2007) and post-GTCS (September 2007–March 2010). Study data were derived from a review of the medical records and from the St Michaels Hospital trauma registry. Abstracted data included demographics, type of geriatric issues addressed, rate of adherence to recommendations made by the GTCS, geriatric-specific clinical outcomes, trauma quality indicators, consultation requests, and discharge destinations. Results:A total of 238 pre-GTCS patients and 248 post-GTCS patients were identified. The rate of adherence to recommendations made by the GTCS team was 93.2%. There were fewer consultation requests made to Internal Medicine and Psychiatry in the post-GTCS group (N = 31 vs N = 18, P = 0.04; and N = 33 vs N = 18, P = 0.02; respectively). There were no differences in any of the prespecified complications except delirium (50.5% pre-GTCS vs 40.9% post- GTCS, P = 0.05). Among patients admitted from home, fewer were discharged to long-term care facilities among the post-GTCS group (6.5% pre-GTCS vs 1.7% post-GTCS, P = 0.03). Conclusions:A proactive geriatric consultation model for elderly trauma patients may decrease delirium and discharges to long-term care facilities. Future studies should include a multicenter randomized trial of this model of care.

Hips Can Lie: Impact of Excluding Isolated Hip Fractures on External Benchmarking of Trauma Center Performance

BACKGROUNDnTrauma centers (TCs) vary in the inclusion of patients with isolated hip fractures (IHFs) in their registries. This inconsistent case ascertainment may have significant implications on the assessment of TC performance and external benchmarking efforts.nnnMETHODSnData were derived from the National Trauma Data Bank (2007-8.1). We included patients (aged 16 years or older) with Injury Severity Score value ≥ 9 who were admitted to Level I and II TCs. To ensure data quality, we limited the study to TC that routinely reported comorbidities and Abbreviated Injury Scale codes. IHF were defined as patients, aged 65 years or older, injured as a result of falls, with Abbreviated Injury Scale codes for hip fracture and without other significant injuries. TCs were stratified according to their reported inclusion of IHF in their registry. Observed-to-expected mortality ratios were used to rank TC performance first with and then, without the inclusion of patients with IHF.nnnRESULTSnIn total, 91,152 patients in 132 TCs were identified; 5% (n = 4,448) were IHF. The proportion of IHF per TC varied significantly, ranging from 0% to 31%. When risk-adjusted mortality was evaluated, excluding patients with IHF had significant effects: 37% (n = 49) of TCs changed their performance rank by ≥ 3 (range, 1-25) and 12% of centers changed their performance quintile. The greatest change in rank performance was evident in centers that routinely include IHF in their registries.nnnCONCLUSIONSnGiven the fact that IHFs in the elderly significantly influence risk-adjusted outcomes and are variably reported by TCs, these patients should be excluded from subsequent benchmarking efforts.

Gender-associated differences in access to trauma center care: A population-based analysis

BACKGROUNDnDisparities in access to services across genders have been reported in many healthcare settings. The extent to which this occurs in the case of emergency surgical care is unknown. We set out to evaluate whether gender is a determinant of access to trauma center care, particularly in the setting where trauma triage guidelines are strong facilitators to ensure that access is determined by physiologic status and injury characteristics.nnnMETHODSnPopulation-based retrospective cohort analysis of severely injured (Injury Severity Score >15) adults surviving to reach hospital. Differential in access to trauma center care was evaluated for females compared with males. Secondary analyses evaluated gender-based differences in direct transport from the scene and transfer from nontrauma centers. The adjusted odd of trauma center care was determined using logistic regression models. Separate models were used to stratify patients based on age, mechanism, and injury severity.nnnRESULTSnWe identified 26,861 severely injured patients; 35% were women. A smaller proportion of females received trauma center care compared with males (49% vs 62%; Pxa0<xa0.0001), an association that persisted after adjustment for confounders (odds ratio [OR], 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.79-0.96). Emergency medical service personnel were less likely to transport females from the field to a trauma center compared with males (OR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.81-0.97). Similarly, physicians were less likely to transfer females to trauma centers compared with males (OR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.73-0.99).nnnCONCLUSIONnSeverely injured women were less likely to be directed to a trauma center across 2 types of providers. The reasons for this differential in access might be related to perceived difference in injury severity, likelihood of benefiting from trauma center care, or subconscious gender bias.

Overcoming barriers to population-based injury research: development and validation of an ICD10-to-AIS algorithm.

BACKGROUNDnHospital administrative databases are a useful source of population-level data on injured patients; however, these databases use the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) system, which does not provide a direct means of estimating injury severity. We created and validated a crosswalk to derive Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) scores from injury-related diagnostic codes in the tenth revision of the ICD (ICD-10).nnnMETHODSnWe assessed the validity of the crosswalk using data from the Ontario Trauma Registry Comprehensive Data Set (OTRCDS). The AIS and Injury Severity Scores (ISS) derived using the algorithm were compared with those assigned by expert abstractors. We evaluated the ability of the algorithm to identify patients with AIS scores of 3 or greater. We used κ and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) as measures of concordance.nnnRESULTSnIn total, 10 431 patients were identified in the OTRCDS. The algorithm accurately identified patients with at least 1 AIS score of 3 or greater (κ 0.65), as well as patients with a head AIS score of 3 or greater (κ 0.78). Mapped and abstracted ISS were similar; ICC across the entire cohort was 0.83 (95% confidence interval 0.81-0.84), indicating good agreement. When comparing mapped and abstracted ISS, the difference between scores was 10 or less in 87% of patients. Concordance between mapped and abstracted ISS was similar across strata of age, mechanism of injury and mortality.nnnCONCLUSIONnOur ICD-10-to-AIS algorithm produces reliable estimates of injury severity from data available in administrative databases. This algorithm can facilitate the use of administrative data for population-based injury research in jurisdictions using ICD-10.