Barbara J. Costello

techniques of neutralization and self-esteem: a critical test of social control and neutralization theory

Sykes and Matza argued that delinquents use techniques of neutralization to enable themselves to engage in behavior they believe is wrong under most circumstances. One function of using these techniques is that the individual is able to protect his or her self-concept while committing delinquent acts. This implies that delinquent youth who use these techniques should have higher levels of self-esteem than delinquents who do not use them. Because Sykes and Matza hold that neutralization is necessary because of the delinquents ties to conventional society, this effect should be stronger among delinquent youth who are more strongly attached to their parents. In contrast, Hirschis social control theory predicts that delinquents who are able to maintain a bond to conventional society should be less likely to neutralize, but if they do neutralize, they should be unable to sufficiently convince themselves of the validity of the neutralizations to protect self-esteem. These hypotheses are tested using data from the Richmond Youth Survey. The results differed depending on whether general neutralizations or neutralizations regarding the police were analyzed. Children who are attached to their parents are less likely to use police-related neutralizations, but delinquents who use these neutralizations have higher self-esteem, consistent with neutralization theory. Delinquents who are more strongly attached to their parents are also less likely to use general neutralizations, but these neutralization techniques do not lead to higher levels of self-esteem, consistent with control theory.

Egotism and Delinquent Behavior

A recent work by Baumeister, Smart, and Boden suggested that “threatened egotism” is an important cause of violent behavior. Challenging the view that low self-esteem causes violence, Baumeister et al. held that those with inflated levels of self-esteem are likely to react violently when faced with ego threats. This article presents a preliminary test of the threatened egotism hypothesis with a sample of junior high and high school students in a small Southern city. The results show that egotism is positively associated with violent and nonviolent delinquency and that this relationship holds when a number of important predictors of delinquency are controlled, including social control and self-control. These results provide some support for the threatened egotism hypothesis and suggest that further research in this area is warranted.

Self-Control and Adverse “Drinking” Consequences

Most research on adverse alcohol consequences such as problems with health, work, and relationships focuses only on alcohol use itself as a cause of these outcomes. However, Gottfredson and Hirschi’s (1990) self-control theory holds that alcohol use and these negative outcomes are likely to have a common cause–low self-control. Tests of hypotheses derived from self-control theory show that self-control predicts negative drinking consequences better than combined measures of alcohol dependence and frequency and quantity of drinking. This suggests that various forms of risk–taking behavior and negative outcomes can be conceptualized as indicators of underlying levels of self-control.

PEER INFLUENCE TOWARD CONFORMITY

ABSTRACT The focus in criminological research on the influence of delinquent peers on delinquency has led the field to almost entirely ignore the influence of conforming peers on conformity. This paper is a first step in correcting this oversight by applying a control theory perspective to the peer effect, arguing that just as delinquent peers seem to increase the individuals delinquency, conforming peers also play a role in reducing or preventing delinquency in the individual. Existing evidence of positive influence from peers is reviewed, and although the issue has not been widely studied, there is evidence that positive peer influence is fairly common and worth greater attention in criminology. Several hypotheses are presented, and it is suggested that future research include measures of positive peer influence as well as peer influence toward delinquency.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND THE STUDY OF DEVIANCE

In this work I argue that the study of deviance as distinct from crime is no longer a productive specialty in sociology. I attribute the cause of the demise of the field to its over reliance on the assumption of cultural relativity. In contrast to the relativist position, I argue that behavior that causes harm will be more likely to be condemned by public opinion and that there will be less variation in attitudes toward behaviors that cause more harm. Using data from the General Social Survey, I find support for the hypothesis that a “deviant” sexual behavior that can have a victim, extramarital sex, will be more consensually condemned than “deviant” sexual behaviors that do not have victims, premarital sex and homosexual sex. I recommend that future research focus on the study of values, as the validity of cultural relativity can be empirically evaluated.

Peer Influence: Mechanisms and Motivations

ABSTRACT This research addresses a question that has not been previously – why do youths try to influence their friends’ behavior? Analysis of written accounts of peer influence toward both deviance and conformity reveals clear differences in motives for peer influence toward prosocial and deviant behavior. Influence toward deviant behavior is much more likely to be motivated by selfish concerns, and influence toward prosocial behavior is more likely to be motivated by altruistic concerns. These findings are consistent with the control theory view that crime and deviance is asocial behavior, and not the result of strong social ties to others.