Barbara J. Lowery

Disease-Related Learning and Disease Control in Diabetics as a Function of Locus of Control

This study investigated the relationship between the individual difference variable, locus of control, and a patients response to diabetes. Since internal persons have been found to be active information seekers as compared to external persons, it was predicted that internal diabetics would know more about their disease and would, therefore, demonstrate more control over it. As predicted, internal diabetics did have more diabetic information, although this superiority over externals diminished as the length of the disease increased. Contrary to prediction, internal diabetics seemed to incur more problems with disease than externals as the disease progressed. This finding was interpreted as presenting a limiting case to the usual thinking about the superiority of an internals response to problem situations.

An exploratory investigation of causal thinking of arthritics.

Research in academic achievement situations suggests that the causes people give for achievement events are linked to subsequent behaviors, emotions, and expectations. An attributional analysis of the causes arthritics gave for their condition tested the limits of the attributional model in the situation of chronic illness. Results indicated that the assumption that causal thinking occurs needs further testing. Fifteen percent of the subjects did not give causes. Those not giving causes were significantly more anxious, more depressed, and more hostile than those who had constructed causes. In terms of the dimensions of attribution theory, the results suggest that when causes are given, they do not easily fit within the classification scheme currently proposed. Suggestions for testing of the attributional model in clinical situations are offered.

On the prevalence of causal search in illness situations.

The prevalence of causal search was examined in two samples, one of chronically ill patients, the other of acutely ill patients. In contrast to the assumption that causal search occurs in important or unexpected life events, the results indicated that such a search was reported by only about half of 296 long-term diabetic, hypertensive, and arthritic patients and 83 newly diagnosed myocardial infarction patients. Moreover, in both samples, affect and expectancies for the future were better for those who had not engaged in causal search. Further research to examine the questions used to elicit causal responses and to test the assumption that causal thinking takes place is suggested.

Psychological distress in survivors of residential fires

This paper presents preliminary findings from an ongoing study of survivors of residential fires. The purpose of this study was to examine psychological distress and extent of loss in order to provide a psychological profile of survivors overtime. The sample (N = 69) was drawn consecutively from the database of residential fires available through the Philadelphia Fire Department. Levels of psychological distress were measured as well as reports of symptoms consistent with the diagnostic criteria for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. The major findings indicate that residential fires caused significant and sustained distress. An agenda for further research and for services to survivors of these fires is presented.

Relaxation training and psychoimmunological status of bereaved spouses. A pilot study.

The death of a family member is one of the most stressful and disruptive life events. Although the literature abounds with subjective pieces concerning bereavement, little is known about the complex biological processes that follow in its wake. However, there is a growing body of evidence that psychological distress may compromise immunocompetence and that support strategies may enhance immune function. Our exploratory study examined the influence of relaxation training on the immunological and psychological status (including anxiety and depression) of bereaved spouses. Nine female spouses, all survivors of patients who died from cancer, were recruited from two hospice programs to participate in this relaxation-training program. Standardized psychological instruments and immunological assays were completed at three data-collection points: before the initiation of the relaxation training (approximately 6 weeks after the death of the spouse); at the conclusion of the training; and 4 weeks after the relaxation training. The subjects received a 1-h relaxation-training program weekly for 4 weeks. It included progressive muscle relaxation training and guided imagery supervised by a psychiatric nurse clinical specialist. The results indicated that the relaxation-training program was well-received by the subjects, with promising psychoimmunological trends that merit more rigorous investigation. This exploratory study has demonstrated the feasibility of conducting a relaxation-training intervention for bereaved spouses and has laid the foundation for continuing research to study the physiological and psychological responses of the bereaved.

Attributional analysis of chronic illness outcomes.

The Weiner et al. attribution model has generated a great deal of research on attributions for success and failure in academic achievement situations. Studies of success and failure attributions in real-life situations of high personal concern are limited. If the attribution model is to lead to a general theory of motivation, such tests in real-life situations are critical. In this study, causal attributions for success and failure outcomes of chronically ill patients were examined. Results indicated at least partial support for the model. Patients tended to attribute success internally and failure externally, but stability and expectations were not linked in this sample. Moreover, a tendency to respond with no cause to an open-ended measure and to hold little commitment to any causes on a closed-ended measure was characteristic of failure subjects.

Psychiatric rehospitalization of the severely mentally ill : patient and staff perspectives

Research findings about psychiatric rehospitalization of severely mentally ill persons have provided few insights into its meaning for patients and staff. An attributional analysis of the causes schizophrenic patients and their staff gave for rehospitalization was used to test the limits of attributions theory in predicting how the event would be viewed. Results indicated that patients tended to give internal attributions for their readmission and believed that the cause was not under their control. Staff also attributed the problem to something internal to the patient, however, they were likely to see the cause as patient effort, which is under patient control.

Resources to Maintain the Academic Culture

In summary, the recent attention to the research aspect of our professorial lives brings with it some challenges. The first, of course, is to keep our research agendas alive--to find the resources to nuture new investigators and to provide the support to sustain those who are funded. The second challenge is to rethink our ideas about teaching so that both sides of the coin are addressed: the need to have classroom teachers who are doing research and the need to keep investigators in the classroom.

On the Consequences of Overturning Turnover: A Study of Performance and Turnover

The possibility that turnover may have a good side has been given increased attention in recent literature. The purpose of this investigation was to study whether turnover, defined as voluntary exit from employment, among newly hired nurses displaces poor performers. Routine performance ratings of 92 leavers and 184 stayers were compared for differences in overall ratings and for ratings on 10 job factor subscales. Results indicated that those who left employment were judged as significantly lower on overall ratings and on 7 of the 10 job factors on which overall ratings were based. The performance factor that best discriminated between leavers and stayers was the variable of interest and motivation, with those leaving being lower on the scale than the stayers. Further study of the performance-turnover relationship and study of other possible consequences of turnover are suggested.

Misconceptions and limitations of locus of control and the I-E scale.

Since 1966, locus of control as measured by the I-E scale has been shown predictive of many different dependent variables in both health and nonhealth situations. In hundreds of articles, expectancies have been reported to mediate perceptual, cognitive, and motivational processes. However, in many other investigations, locus of control has failed to predict the dependent variable being studied. Therefore, it is clear there are limitations to the predictive power of the construct. In recent years published research highlighting these limitations has resulted in a decrease in research about locus of control and the use of the I-E scale. Yet many investigators do not know or perhaps choose to ignore the criticisms published in recent years. Nurses who are interested in locus of control are encouraged to understand the construct and the frequent misapplications of it which occur, to realize the limitations of the I-E scale when considering instrumentation, and to consider multidimensional attribution theory as more appropriate to understanding behavior than locus of control.