Barbara J. McMorris

Adolescent violence perpetration: associations with multiple types of adverse childhood experiences.

OBJECTIVE: Adverse childhood experiences are associated with significant functional impairment and life lost in adolescence and adulthood. This study identified relationships between multiple types of adverse events and distinct categories of adolescent violence perpetration. METHODS: Data are from 136 549 students in the 6th, 9th, and 12th grades who responded to the 2007 Minnesota Student Survey, an anonymous, self-report survey examining youth health behaviors and perceptions, characteristics of primary socializing domains, and youth engagement. Linear and logistic regression models were used to determine if 6 types of adverse experiences including physical abuse, sexual abuse by family and/or other persons, witnessing abuse, and household dysfunction caused by family alcohol and/or drug use were significantly associated with risk of adolescent violence perpetration after adjustment for demographic covariates. An adverse-events score was entered into regression models to test for a dose-response relationship between the event score and violence outcomes. All analyses were stratified according to gender. RESULTS: More than 1 in 4 youth (28.9%) reported at least 1 adverse childhood experience. The most commonly reported adverse experience was alcohol abuse by a household family member that caused problems. Each type of adverse childhood experience was significantly associated with adolescent interpersonal violence perpetration (delinquency, bullying, physical fighting, dating violence, weapon-carrying on school property) and self-directed violence (self-mutilatory behavior, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempt). For each additional type of adverse event reported by youth, the risk of violence perpetration increased 35% to 144%. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple types of adverse childhood experiences should be considered as risk factors for a spectrum of violence-related outcomes during adolescence. Providers and advocates should be aware of the interrelatedness and cumulative impact of adverse-event types. Study findings support broadening the current discourse on types of adverse events when considering pathways from child maltreatment to adolescent perpetration of delinquent and violent outcomes.

Perceived discrimination and early substance abuse among American Indian children.

This study investigated internalizing and externalizing symptoms as potential mediators of the relationship between perceived discrimination and early substance abuse among 195 American Indian 5 through 8 graders from three reservations that share a common culture (e.g., language, spiritual beliefs, and traditional practices) in the upper Midwest. The findings indicated that, although perceived discrimination contributed significantly to internalizing symptoms among the adolescents, internalizing symptoms were unrelated to early substance abuse. Rather, the effects of perceived discrimination on early substance abuse were mediated by adolescent anger and delinquent behaviors. The results are discussed in terms of the consequences of perceived discrimination on the development of American Indian early adolescents.

Perceived Discrimination, Traditional Practices, and Depressive Symptoms among American Indians in the Upper Midwest*

American Indian adults are thought to experience significant depressive symptoms at rates several times higher than adults in the general population, yet we know very little about factors associated with depressive symptoms among this under studied group. Many researchers have argued that depressive symptoms are associated with conflicts between American Indian traditional cultural values, practices, and beliefs and those of the majority culture. This report, based on a sample 287 American Indian adults from the upper Midwest, takes into account two measures of cultural effects: perceived discrimination, as one indicator of culture conflict, and traditional practices, as a measure of cultural identification. The results indicate that discrimination is strongly associated with depressive symptoms among American Indian adults and that engaging in traditional practices is negatively related to depressive symptoms. Moreover, interaction effects between perceived discrimination and traditional practices indicate that engaging in traditional practices buffers the negative effects of discrimination among those who regularly participate in them.

Analyzing Multiple-Item Measures of Crime and Deviance I: Item Response Theory Scaling

Multiple-item measures of self-reported offending typically provide the principal outcome measures for individual level research on the causes of crime and deviance. This article directs attention to the substantial problems presented by the task of forming composite scores for these measures, and it presents a possible solution to those problems. We consider scaling by means of the graded response model from item response theory (IRT) as a potential means of overcoming the shortcomings of traditional summative scaling and of obtaining valuable information about the strengths and weaknesses of our measures. We illustrate this strategy through a scale analysis of a fourteen-item, self-report measure of delinquency, using three years of data from the Monitoring the Future study, an annual national survey of high school seniors. The graded response model proves to be consistent with the data, and it provides results that address important substantive questions about self-report measures. The findings are informative about the strengths and weaknesses of alternative strategies for developing self-report instruments, indicating that there is little to be gained by making fine distinctions in the frequency of individual delinquent acts.

Puberty and the Onset of Substance Use and Abuse

Objective. Substance abuse remains one of the major threats to adolescent health in Western cultures. The study aim was to ascertain the extent of association between pubertal development and early adolescent substance use. Methods. The design was a cross-sectional survey of 10- to 15-year-old subjects in the states of Washington, United States, and Victoria, Australia. Participants were 5769 students in grades 5, 7, and 9, drawn as a 2-stage cluster sample in each state, and the questionnaire was completed in the school classrooms. The main outcomes of the study were lifetime substance use (tobacco use, having been drunk, or cannabis use), recent substance use (tobacco, alcohol, or cannabis use in the previous month), and substance abuse (daily smoking, any binge drinking, drinking at least weekly, or cannabis use at least weekly). Results. The odds of lifetime substance use were almost twofold higher (odds ratio [OR]: 1.7; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.4–2.1) in midpuberty (Tanner stage III) and were threefold higher (OR: 3.1; 95% CI: 2.4–4.2) in late puberty (Tanner stage IV/V), after adjustment for age and school grade level. Recent substance use was moderately higher (OR: 1.4; 95% CI: 1.0–1.9) in midpuberty and more than twofold higher (OR: 2.3; 95% CI: 1.7–3.3) in late puberty. The odds of substance abuse were twofold higher (OR: 2.0; 95% CI: 1.2–3.2) in midpuberty and more than threefold higher (OR: 3.5; 95% CI: 2.2–5.4) in late puberty. Reporting most friends as substance users was more likely in the later stages of pubertal development, a relationship that accounted in part for the association found between later pubertal stage and substance abuse. Conclusions. Pubertal stage was associated with higher rates of substance use and abuse independent of age and school grade level. Early maturers had higher levels of substance use because they entered the risk period at an earlier point than did late maturers. The study findings support prevention strategies and policies that decrease recreational substance use within the peer social group in the early teens.

Analyzing multiple-item measures of crime and deviance II: Tobit regression analysis of transformed scores.

The purpose of this article is to inform criminological researchers about tobit regression, an alternative regression model that deserves more attention in this field. Tobit regression is intended for continuous data that are censored, or bounded at a limiting value. The tobit model may be a particularly good match to measures of self-reported offending, provided they have been transformed to reduce skewness. We present empirical analyses that evaluate the match of self-report measures to the assumptions of ordinary least square (OLS) and tobit regression models and that assess the consequences of any violations of assumptions. The analyses use a fourteen-item, self-report measure of delinquency from the Monitoring the Future study, a national survey of high school seniors. These analyses provide clear evidence that (1) transformations to reduce skewness improve the match of OLS to the data but still leave considerable discrepancies, and (2) the tobit model is well suited to the transformed measure. We conclude by assessing the purposes for which tobit offers greater and smaller advantages over OLS regression.

Prevalence of Substance Use and Delinquent Behavior in Adolescents From Victoria, Australia and Washington State, United States

This article compares prevalence estimates of substance use and delinquent behavior in Washington State, United States and Victoria, Australia, two states chosen for their different policy environments around problem behavior. Few comparisons of international differences on rates of multiple problem behavior exist, and most are based on methods that are not matched, raising the question of whether findings are based on methodological differences rather than actual rate differences. The International Youth Development Study used standardized methods to recruit and administer an adaptation of the Communities That Care Youth Survey to representative state samples of fifth-, seventh-, and ninth-grade students in each state. Rates of delinquent behavior were generally comparable. However, striking differences in substance use were noted, with Victoria students reporting higher rates of alcohol use, alcohol misuse, smoking, and inhalant use, whereas Washington State students reported higher rates of marijuana use. Implications for conducting international comparisons are discussed.

Suicidal Thinking and Behavior Among Youth Involved in Verbal and Social Bullying: Risk and Protective Factors

PURPOSE To identify risk and protective factors associated with thinking about or attempting suicide among youth involved in verbal and social bullying. METHODS We analyzed data on 130,908 students in the sixth, ninth, and twelfth grades responding to the 2010 Minnesota Student Survey. Among students involved in frequent bullying (once a week or more during the past 30 days), we compared those who did and did not report suicidal ideation or a suicide attempt during the past year. Separate analyses were conducted for perpetrators only, victims only, and bully-victims. RESULTS Overall, 6.1% of students reported frequent perpetration only, 9.6% frequent victimization only, and 3.1% both. Suicidal thinking or a suicide attempt was reported by 22% of perpetrators only, 29% of victims only, and 38% of bully-victims. In logistic regression models controlling for demographic and other risk and protective factors, a history of self-injury and emotional distress were risk factors that cross-cut the three bullying involvement groups. Physical abuse, sexual abuse, a mental health problem, and running away from home were additional risk factors for perpetrators only and victims only. Parent connectedness was a cross-cutting protective factor, whereas stronger perceived caring by friends and by nonparental adults were additional protective factors for some groups. CONCLUSIONS A range of risk and protective factors were associated with suicidal ideation and a suicide attempt among youth involved in verbal and social bullying. Findings may assist in identifying youth at increased risk for suicidal thinking and behavior and in promoting key protective factors.

Risk Factors for Violence and Relational Aggression in Adolescence

Analyses examined risk factors for seventh-and ninth-grade youth categorized as nonoffenders, physically violent, relationally aggressive, and both violent and relationally aggressive. Bivariate and multivariate results showed that relationally aggressive youth were elevated on most risks above levels for nonoffenders but lower than those for youth who were violent alone or violent in combination with relational aggression. Youth who were both relationally aggressive and violent did not differ from those who were violent alone on most risk factors examined. Peer, individual, and family risks were among the strongest predictors.

Factors Distinguishing Youth Who Report Self-Injurious Behavior: A Population-Based Sample

OBJECTIVE To identify factors distinguishing adolescents across 3 groups: no self-harm, nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) only, and NSSI and suicide attempt (NSSI + SA). METHODS Data were from the 2007 Minnesota Student Survey. The sample included 61,330 students in grades 9 and 12. Logistic regression analysis determined factors that best distinguished adolescents who reported NSSI from those who reported no self-harm, and adolescents who reported NSSI + SA. Final models were developed over 3 stages of analysis that tested the importance of variables within risk factor, protective factor, and co-occurring health-risk behavior domains. RESULTS For male and female subjects, factors that consistently distinguished youth who reported NSSI from those who reported no self-harm included depressive symptoms, hopelessness, physical abuse, less parent connectedness, running away from home, and maladaptive dieting behavior. Factors that distinguished the NSSI + SA group from the NSSI only group for both sexes were a mental health problem, depressive symptoms, hopelessness, physical abuse, and running away from home. Other factors, such as sexual abuse, were significant in models for males or females only. Hopelessness constituted the leading factor to increase the likelihood that youth who self-injured also attempted suicide. CONCLUSIONS Youth engaging in NSSI experience diverse psychosocial stressors and significant distress. Clinicians and school personnel are well-positioned to offer support to these youth. Furthermore, they can help address NSSI among youth by identifying those who self-injure early, assessing for hopelessness and suicidality, facilitating connections to prosocial adults, addressing maladaptive dieting behavior, and supporting runaway youth.