Barbara K. Hofer

The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning:

There have been a number of research programs that have investigated students’ thinking and beliefs about the nature of knowledge and knowing, including definitions of knowledge, how knowledge is constructed, and how knowledge is evaluated. However, these different research programs have pursued varying definitions and conceptual frameworks and used quite different methodologies to examine students’ epistemological beliefs and thinking. In the first section of this article, we provide a critical and comprehensive review of these different research programs. In the second part of this article, we identify nine crucial theoretical and methodological issues that need to be resolved in future research on epistemological theories. As these issues are addressed in future research, there will be more consensus regarding the nature of epistemological theories, and their relation to cognition, motivation, and learning will be made more explicit.

Introduction: Paradigmatic Approaches to Personal Epistemology

The conceptions that individuals have about knowledge and knowing have been the focus of a range of research programs, including epistemological beliefs (Schommer, 1990, 1994), epistemological theories (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997), reflective judgment (King & Kitchener, 1994), epistemic beliefs (Bendixen, 2002; Schraw, Bendixen, & Dunkle, 2002), epistemological reflection (Baxter Magolda, 1992, 2001), epistemological resources (Hammer & Elby, 2002), and others. These diverse areas of investigation are part of a larger body of work categorized as “personal epistemology” (Hofer & Pintrich, 2002), a field that examines what individuals believe about how knowing occurs, what counts as knowledge and where it resides, and how knowledge is constructed and evaluated. Although the foundations of most models of epistemological understanding can be traced to Perry’s (1970) scheme of intellectual development during the college years, educational psychologists have been at the forefront of examining the relevance of these constructs for education at all levels, with important implications for teaching and learning (Hofer, 2001). Beliefs about the nature of knowledge may influence comprehension (Schommer, 1990), cognitive processing (Kardash & Howell, 2000), and conceptual change learning (Qian & Alvermann, 2000), for example. Conversely, education also appears to influence epistemological development, fostering one’s competency to critically evaluate information, resolve competing knowledge claims, and coordinate theoryandevidence(King&Kitchener,1994;Kuhn,1991). Although these individual conceptions of knowledge and knowing appear to be a part of the process of learning and integral to education, the existing research programs lack a unifying terminology and have been pursued from disparate disciplinary homes, including educational psychology, developmental psychology, higher education, and science and math education. Each of the existing frameworks for the investigation of personal epistemology contributes to an overall understanding of the broader construct, but because the research has been pursued from varied disciplinary traditions and paradigms, few educational psychologists have had full access to the range of thinking and the empirical investigations that have flourished in this area. This special issue attempts to address that concern by presenting the work of researchers with diverse approaches, with each author describing the construct from a particular perspective, followed by a final article that proposes an integrated model. The idea for this special issue arose in response to an interactive symposium at the American Educational Research Association (April 2002) on “Personal Epistemology: Conflicts and Consensus in an Emerging Area of Inquiry.” Invited panelists were asked to respond in advance to a set of questions about their distinct approaches to personal epistemology and then to read each other’s responses prior to the symposium. This opportunity to create informed dialogue about points of contention in the field was a departure from the usual paper presentation format and led to provocative discussions about the nature of the construct, methodological approaches, and educational implications. In the spirit of that session, each of the authors agreed to create an article that further delineated the theoretical and methodological nature of his or her approach to personal epistemology, with examples of ongoing research, implications for education, and suggestions for future studies. Our goal in this special issue of Educational Psychologist is to bring this discussion of paradigmatic approaches to a wider audience in order to sharpen the conceptual understanding of personal epistemology and to increase awareness of this important area of research for educators and educational psychologists. We hope to help bring clarity to the field by helping readers examine both the common ground in the various models and the points of divergence, gain a better understanding of the educational relevance of personal epistemology, and learn more about the methodological approaches for investigating this construct and the research questions that need attention. Although research on students’ EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGIST, 39(1), 1–3 Copyright

What Is Tracking? Cultural Expectations in the United States, Germany, and Japan

On the basis of the TIMSS Case Study Project data collected in the United States, Japan, and Germany in 1994–1995, this article examines the phenomenon of tracking as part of curricular differentiation and student placement practices in public K–12 school systems. The authors document clear national differences in differentiation and placement measures and summarize the history of conflict over those measures. Analysis of respondent perceptions and beliefs about differentiation and placement (what people think “tracking” is) shows that nation-specific values and attitudes (i.e., cultures) determine which forms of curricular differentiation are legitimated and which contested. Dominant cultural beliefs about what students are capable of and the role that schools should play in educating them create different points of conflict over tracking.

Personal Epistemology and Culture

The role that personal epistemology plays in intellectual development, learning, and education has been investigated for several decades in the USA (see Hofer & Pintrich, 1997, 2002) and has recently been pursued in other cultural environments. Research suggests that epistemological understanding has important implications for learning: for example, beliefs about the nature of knowledge may influence strategy use, comprehension, cognitive processing, and conceptual change learning. However, the primary constructs regarding students’ conceptions of knowledge and knowing were all developed with US college students, and the initial research on which most models are based was conducted with white males at an elite institution in the 1950s and 1960s (Perry, 1970). Furthermore, measurement of epistemic beliefs has typically been formulated and validated in the USA and then applied in other cultures by translating existing instruments and presuming similar factor structures. In recent years, however, research on epistemic beliefs and development has been expanding in its comprehensiveness, particularly in regard to research in multiple cultures, providing potential challenges and possible expansion of existing models. In this introductory chapter, I will provide a brief overview of personal epistemology from multiple paradigms (Hofer, 2004b), review examples of research conducted across cultures, and suggest implications of a more culturally informed personal epistemology both for multicultural education and for future research.

Addressing Challenges to Public Understanding of Science: Epistemic Cognition, Motivated Reasoning, and Conceptual Change

Science is of critical importance to daily life in a knowledge society and has a significant influence on many everyday decisions. As scientific problems increase in their number and complexity, so do the challenges facing the public in understanding these issues. Our objective is to focus on 3 of those challenges: the challenge of reasoning about knowledge and the processes of knowing, the challenge of overcoming biases in that reasoning, and the challenge of overcoming misconceptions. We propose that research in epistemic cognition, motivated reasoning, and conceptual change can help to identify, understand, and address these obstacles for public understanding of science. We explain the contributions of each of these areas in providing insights into the publics understandings and misunderstandings about knowledge, the nature of science, and the content of science. We close with educational recommendations for promoting scientific literacy.

Personal epistemology and theory of mind: deciphering young children's beliefs about knowledge and knowing

The beliefs that individuals hold about knowledge and knowing have been the focus of a growing body of work on “personal epistemology.” There has been general agreement among researchers about a developmental trajectory of epistemological understanding that takes place in adolescence and adulthood. Rarely has this research included children, however, and we know little about the origins of epistemological awareness or its early development. A separate group of researchers have investigated childrens “theory of mind,” or the ability to understand others’ beliefs, actions, and desires, with primary attention to the onset of this cognitive achievement between the ages of 3 and 5. This article reviews the theoretical foundation for a proposed relation between these constructs, and reports on an exploratory investigation with 3–5 year olds, in which epistemological level was significantly related to theory of mind ability. Results are discussed in relation to a general timeline depicting the development of childrens beliefs about knowledge and knowing, a process that involves an ongoing tension between objective and subjective perspectives. We propose that the trajectory of epistemological development be expanded to include an initial period of egocentric subjectivity that characterizes epistemological thinking prior to the achievement of theory of mind.

Public Understanding of Science: Policy and Educational Implications

The need for public understanding of science is especially critical in today’s society when citizens frequently confront complex, conflicting information on challenging topics. This article presents research on challenges for public understanding of science: In addition to increased scientific literacy (knowledge), people may need to shift epistemic cognition (beliefs about the nature of knowledge) and epistemic trust (beliefs about source credibility) to accept scientific perspectives. The article suggests how educators, media specialists, and scientists who communicate about their work might help address these challenges. Educational implications include (a) teach scientific processes, (b) teach for deeper understanding, (c) promote epistemic cognition, and (d) use instructional scaffolds. Policy recommendations include (a) fund educational research on thinking, (b) emphasize how to think over what to think, (c) support malleable psychological skills and dispositions, (d) avoid presenting “balanced perspectives” when there is scientific consensus, and (e) demand more rigorous teacher preparation standards. All these develop an informed citizenry.

Shaping the Epistemology of Teacher Practice through Reflection and Reflexivity.

Reflection on practice is a core principle for guiding improvement in professional work such as teaching and can be enhanced by reflection on epistemic cognition, the way we think about knowledge and knowing. Viewed as an intellectual virtue, a habit of mind, and a learnable skill, epistemic reflection can help teachers learn to critically question the source, certainty, reliability, and veracity of their own knowing. In this response to a set of articles on changing epistemic cognition through reflection and reflexivity, a case study of teaching educational psychology is provided as an example of putting these complex ideas into practice. Through such practices, instructors can also help future teachers learn to better understand and utilize empirical evidence as a knowledge basis for pedagogical decisions.