Barry A. Costa-Pierce

Sustainable Ecological Aquaculture Systems: The Need for a New Social Contract for Aquaculture Development

l Ecohistories of aquaculture suggest that aquaculture is a natural part of human development throughout history and that modern, industrial aquaculture could strengthen its social and ecological roots by articulating its evolution along a sustainability trajectory and by adopting fully the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) ecosystems approach to aquaculture (EAA; Soto et al., 2008). The EAA creates a new code for global aquaculture development, combining into one common framework the two most important social–ecological trajectories for global aquaculture—aquaculture for the world’s rich and aquaculture for the world’s poor. Knowledge of the rich archeology and anthropology of aquaculture connects this FAO code to antiquity, creating a single development pathway for aquaculture throughout human history. Without widespread adoption of an EAA, FAO (2009) projections of aquaculture development over the next 30 years may provide a far too optimistic scenario for its global growth. In this regard, aquaculture over the last 20 years has been criticized as lacking adequate attention and investment in developing grassroots, democratic, extension processes to engage a broader group of stakeholders to evolve the “blue revolution.” As an example, there has been a failure of fisheries and aquaculture to plan together to ensure sustainable supplies of seafood—the world’s most valuable proteins for human health—for seafood-eating peoples. Nonfed aquaculture (seaweeds, shellfish) has received worldwide attention for its rapid movement toward greater sustainability, which has led to more widespread social acceptance. For fed aquaculture, recent trends analyses have suggested that aquaculture is turning from the ocean to land-based agriculture to provide its protein feeds and oils. As such, more sophisticated, ecologically planned and designed “aquaculture ecosystems” will become more widespread because they better fit the social–ecological context of both rich and poor countries. Ecological aquaculture provides the basis for developing a new social contract for aquaculture that is inclusive of all stakeholders and decision makers in fisheries, agriculture, and ecosystems conservation and restoration. for Seafood he Food and Agriculture OrganiThe successful application of new knowledge and breakthrough technologies, which are likely to occur with ever-increasing frequency, will require an entirely new interdisciplinary approach to policy-making: one that operates in an agile problem-solving environment and works effectively at the interface where science and technology meet business and public policy. It must be rooted in a vastly improved understanding of people, organizations, cultures, and nations and be implemented by innovative strategies and new methods of communication (Lane, 2006). Aquaculture Is Not a Global Panacea T zation (FAO, 2009) “State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008 Report” received much press due to its loud pronouncement that aquaculture now contributes about half of the world’s seafood. This release was celebrated by global aquaculture advocates and policy makers but also was met with consternation among some capture fisheries and environmental NGO circles. At aquaculture conventions worldwide, this news was greeted with much boasting—the kind of which is routine among keynote speakers at aquaculture gatherings— which recant a tale that reads like, “because the world capture fisheries are dead or all collapsing, that the world must turn rapidly away from hunting the seas, to farming them, and that aquaculture must (and will) grow at a breathtaking pace everywhere.” However, if we look more closely at the FAO (2009) statistics, we do not have the massive development of aquaculture all over planet Earth everywhere outside of China. Aquaculture’s growth is restricted to very few places and countries.With potentially billions of dollars of multilateral and bilateral aid at stake in global aquaculture development, it is important to reanalyze the data which show the following: (1) The world is not eating half of its seafood from aquaculture. The world has watched, and is watching, a blue revolution ... in China. In 2006, China accounted for 67% of all global aquaculture production, 34.4 million metric tons [MMT] of a total world aquaculture production of 51.7 MMT. In addition, Chinese aquaculture production is largely feeding China (FAO, 2009), not the world. For the rest of the world, aquaculture production in 2006 was just 17.2 MMT (FAO, 2009). Therefore, outside of China, aquaculture provided just 23% of world fisheries production, not 47%. In addition, most global aquaculture production remains—for all the controversies over shrimp and salmon—freshwater fish (54%) and mollusks (27%) (FAO, 2009). Especially for mariculture, there are major concerns that it will not experience the phenomenal growth that has occurred for freshwater aquaculture due to user conflicts, lack of suitable sites, water quality degradation, and the high cost and availabilities of feedstuffs. (2) Global capture fisheries are not “dead.” Albeit of great concern due to mismanagement and alarming global trends, especially so since global marine capture fisheries production peaked in the late 1980s (Watson and Pauly, 2001; Pauly et al., 2003), capture fisheries still provide an estimated 81.9 MMT (FAO, 2009) and are the major animal protein source for the majority of seafood-eating peoples of the planet, especially for the world’s poor (Hall et al., 2010). (3) With a few notable exceptions, such as Norway, aquaculture development in the rich countries is very limited in scope and has not occurred to any significant degree. All of Europe and North America provide less than 5% of global aquaculture production (FAO, 2009). The share of world aquaculture production for the 27 nations of the European Union has dropped over the past 10 years from 4% to 2%. In the United States, production declines have been occurred over the past 5 years in farmed catfish, trout, and shrimp, with positive trends only for shellfish aquaculture and salmon aquaculture in Maine. New land-based and coastal sites are limited as the global population has shifted from 97% rural in 1800 to 50% rural in 2007 (United Nations, 2008). In the rich countries, aquaculture development has been slowed by user conflicts and access to sites, obtuse and ever-changing regulatory regimes, lack of government investments at a meaningful commercial scale, consumer disinterest, and a lack of aquaculture education by local, coastal, and other environmental decision makers. (4) With a few notable exceptions such as Brazil, Bangladesh, India, Vietnam, and Egypt, aquaculture development in the world’s poorest nations has not occurred. In Africa, 200 million people have between 22% and 70% of their dietary May/J animal protein from fish, whereas in developed countries the average is just 13% (Heck et al., 2007). Africa provides only 1% of the world’s aquaculture production ad less than 5% of Africa’s fish production, with most development concentrated in Egypt where aquaculture production has grown 10-fold since the 1990’s (FAO, 2009). To meet seafood demands due to projected population growth to 2030, FAO (2009) has estimated that at least an additional 40MMT of aquatic food will be required to maintain the current per capita consumption. This forecasts that world aquaculture production will exceed 90 million tons and surpass global capture fisheries production. I argue that such an expansion of aquaculture globally in the rich and poor countries outside of China might not occur because of the following: (1) The current industrial aquaculture development paradigm is inadequate at all levels of government and that without major government subsidies, aquaculture will not spread as rapidly in the next two decades as it has in the past two unless ecological aquaculture as an alternative development model for aquaculture becomes the dominant development model. (2) Most national decision makers are unaware of and are not planning for the magnitude of the world’s coastal urban, land, energy, and water crises, and the implications on food production of these vast societal challenges that need to occur—Brown (2009) calls this “mobilizing to save civilization”— and are continuing to be duped by “20th century thinking” into believing that there are vast areas of a virgin ocean planet and adequate feedstuffs just waiting for a large une 2010 Volume 44 Number 3 89 expansion of “fed aquaculture” developments, which there are not. (3) Professional, regulatory “decisionmaker communities” in aquaculture and fisheries are so separate structurally and functionally in many countries to the point that they have lost track of their common goal of delivering environmentally friendly, safe, sustainable seafood to the people they serve. Professional fisheries managers are working everywhere to recover damaged capture fisheries in both developed and developing nations. Recovered fisheries will add price and volume competition to aquaculture in many regions of the world, in some cases making aquaculture development not economically feasible, a fact which may not be captured in global statistics. The world will need all the fish it can produce sustainably from capture fisheries as well as develop aquaculture. Management conflicts and educational deficiencies between fisheries and aquaculture managers will need to end as products that sustain livelihoods will be needed from both. There is an urgent need for institutions that train the next generation of professional stewards in a new “sustainable seafood” paradigm (Smith et al., 2010). This would result in the development of a cadre of decision makers who could conduct the integrated planning for aquaculture, fisheries, ecosystems, and their allied regional social infrastructures. The target areas of the world where this is most needed are ones where aqua

Population dynamics, distribution, and growth rate of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) in the Salton Sea, California, with notes on bairdiella (Bairdiella icistia) and orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus)

The Salton Sea is a highly saline lake that has long supported sportfishery and large populations of fish-eating birds. A study was initiated in 1999 to assess the status of orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus), bairdiella (Bairdiella icistia) and tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus × O. urolepis). Multimesh (50 × 2 m) gillnets were set at nine stations in 1999, ten stations in 2000 and six stations in 2002. These stations were sampled every two months in 1999, every three months in 2000 and once in 2002. O. mossambicus was the most abundant of the four species, with a maximum mean catch per unit effort (CPUE) 13.8 kg net−1 h−1 or 29.9 fish net−1 h−1 being observed at the river mouth stations in August 1999. From spring to summer, tilapia CPUE increased at nearshore and river mouth stations and decreased at pelagic stations, apparently reflecting migration away from midlake areas in response to anoxia or hypoxia caused by periodic springtime overturn events in deep waters. Tilapia catches in nearshore, river mouth and pelagic habitats were 83 and 60% males in 1999 and 2000, respectively. Tilapia catches in rivers in August 1999 averaged only 6% male. During 1999–2000, the tilapia population consisted essentially of only the 1995 and 2000 year classes. Harsh conditions at the Salton Sea have led to erratic reproduction and survival rates and unstable age structures for its resident fishes. Massive parasite infestations of fry and physiological stressors such as anoxia, high sulfide levels, high salinity and high and low temperatures are potential causes of the irregular recruitment and periodic dieoffs of tilapia. The abundance of all fish species declined over the years of study. Between 1999 and 2002, the late summer mean CPUEs for tilapia, bairdiella and orangemouth corvina at four nearshore stations dropped from 16 fish to 0.02 fish, from 4.7 fish net to 0.23 fish, and from 0.08 fish to 0.02 fish, respectively. During 2000–2003, parallel declines occurred in estimated numbers of adult fish involved in mass mortality events at the Sea. The boom-and-bust dynamics of tilapia and other fish populations in the Sea have major consequences for fish-eating bird populations, for other components of the ecosystem, and for the recreational value of the lake.

Fish biology and fisheries ecology of the Salton Sea, California

Studies of the fisheries ecology and fish biology of the Salton Sea, California, were conducted in 1999 and 2000 using 50 m gill nets in river, nearshore, pelagic, and estuarine areas. Total lengths and weights were measured for all fish captured, and sub-samples were dissected for gonad weights and aging. Ten fish species were captured of which a hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicusx O. urolepis hornorum) was dominant by number and weight. Nearshore and estuarine areas had highest catch rates (over 11 kg h−1 net−1 for tilapia). Rivers were richest in the number of species (6 of 10 species were exclusively riverine), but lowest in fish abundance. Orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus), bairdiella (Bairdiella icistia), sargo (Anisotremus davidsoni), and tilapia grew faster, but had shorter life spans than conspecifics elsewhere and Salton Sea conspecifics of 50 years ago. Reproduction occurred mostly in the nearshore and estuarine areas. Onset of reproduction of bairdiella and sargo was in the spring and extended through the beginning of summer. Reproduction of orangemouth corvina started in the summer and of tilapia in the spring. Reproduction of orangemouth corvina and tilapia extended through the fall. Gender ratios of tilapia were skewed toward males in all areas, except the rivers, where females predominated. All four species aggregated along the nearshore and estuarine areas in the summer when dissolved oxygen in the pelagic area was limited. Any restoration alternative for the Salton Sea should consider areas close to shore as primary areas for fish reproduction and survival.

Constraints to the Sustainability of Cage Aquaculture for Resettlement From Hydropower Dams in Asia: An Indonesian Case Study

From 1985 to 1988, the Saguling and Cirata hydropower reservoirs in the highlands of West Java, Indonesia, displaced more than 40,000 families. As part of a comprehensive resettlement plan, an attempt to resettle 3,000 families in water-based f loating fish cage aquaculture and land-based aquaculture sup port was initiated. Although the reservoir cage aquaculture developments were successful from a fish-production viewpoint, since 1944 cage aquaculture has not been socially or environmentally sustainable. Fish cage aquaculture in reservoirs can be an important new means ofpopulation resettlement from hy dropower dam construction and protein production in tropical developing countries only with adequate government planning for fisheries; adequate fi nancial compensation for lost assets; rigid enforcement of institutional regula tions guaranteeing the long-term benefits of the new lakes for the exclusive use of the displaced people; enforcement of regulations on cage numbers to prevent environmental degradation; and adequate government subsidies for aquacul ture job creation, training, long-term extension support, and active monitoring.

Investigations on the use of on-farm resources as pond inputs to culture Tilapia rendalli and Oreochromis shiranus on smallholder farms in rural Malawi

Abstract Resources available on the majority of smallholder fish farms in the Zomba District of Malawi were tested to increase smallholder aquaculture production currently limited by a lack of inputs. Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) (NG) and maize bran (MB), isonitrogenous combinations (0.7 kg N ha−1 day−1) of napier grass, maize bran, wood ash (WA) and urea (U) were applied daily and some ponds were stirred (S) twice a week with a rake for 126 days (series 1) and 112 days (series 2) in 200-m2 ponds stocked with monocultures and 1:1 polycultures of Tilapia rendalli and Oreochromis shiranus at 2 m−2 and 1 fish 0.5 m−2, respectively. Extrapolated net fish yields of up to 3013 kg ha−1 year−1 (series 1) and 2249 kg ha−1 year−1 (series 2) were obtained in NG/MB and S/U/MB/NG/WA treatments. Fry and fingerlings contributed 63–76% and 28–93% to net yields in series 1 and 2, respectively. In series 1, specific growth rates (SGRs) and percent weight gains were significantly higher (P Feeds (NG and MB) had similar delta carbon (δC) values (−12.1‰). T. rendalli in mono- or polyculture had δC values (−12.4 to −12.9‰) indicating it derived most of its carbon for growth directly from NG or MB. O. shiranus values (−13.0 to −15.2‰) were more negative, indicating it fed more on detritus.

Managing Bay and Estuarine Ecosystems for Multiple Services

Managers are moving from a model of managing individual sectors, human activities, or ecosystem services to an ecosystem-based management (EBM) approach which attempts to balance the range of services provided by ecosystems. Applying EBM is often difficult due to inherent tradeoffs in managing for different services. This challenge particularly holds for estuarine systems, which have been heavily altered in most regions and are often subject to intense management interventions. Estuarine managers can often choose among a range of management tactics to enhance a particular service; although some management actions will result in strong tradeoffs, others may enhance multiple services simultaneously. Management of estuarine ecosystems could be improved by distinguishing between optimal management actions for enhancing multiple services and those that have severe tradeoffs. This requires a framework that evaluates tradeoff scenarios and identifies management actions likely to benefit multiple services. We created a management action-services matrix as a first step towards assessing tradeoffs and providing managers with a decision support tool. We found that management actions that restored or enhanced natural vegetation (e.g., salt marsh and mangroves) and some shellfish (particularly oysters and oyster reef habitat) benefited multiple services. In contrast, management actions such as desalination, salt pond creation, sand mining, and large container shipping had large net negative effects on several of the other services considered in the matrix. Our framework provides resource managers a simple way to inform EBM decisions and can also be used as a first step in more sophisticated approaches that model service delivery.

Sustainable food production

Part I: Animal Breeding and Genetics for Food Animal Breeding and Genetics, Introduction Animal Breeding Methods and Sustainability Animal Breeding, Foundations of Animal Breeding, Long-Term Challenges Animal Breeding, Modeling in Animal Genetic in Environment Interaction Animal Molecular Genetics from Major Genes to Genomics Breeding in Beef Cattle Breeding in Developing Countries and Tropics Breeding in Horses Dairy Cattle Breeding Pig Breeding for Increased Sustainability Poultry Breeding Socially Affected Traits, Inheritance and Genetic Improvement Part II: Crop Science and Technology Abiotic Stress Tolerant Crops: Genes, Pathways and Bottlenecks Biomass Crops for Biofuels and Bio-based Products Biotechnology and Nutritional Improvement of Crops Commercialisation of GM Crops: Comparison of Regulatory Frameworks Crop Breeding for Sustainable Agriculture, Genomics Interventions in Crop Plants Transformation MethodsCrop Science and Technology, Introduction Crop Traits: Gene Isolation Genetic Engineering of Crops for Insect Resistance Global Economic Impact of Transgenic/Biotech Crops (1996-2008) GM Crop Risk Debate, Science and Socioeconomics Medicinal Plants, Engineering of Secondary Metabolites in Cell Cultures Molecular Breeding Platforms in World Agriculture Plant Molecular Pharming, Industrial Enzymes Plant Molecular Pharming, Pharmaceuticals for Human Health Plant Molecular Pharming, Veterinary Applications Sustainable Herbicide-Resistant Crops Transgene Expression in Plants, Control of Transgenic Crops Resistant to Fungal, Bacterial, and Viral Pathogens Transgenic Crops, Environmental Impact Transgenic Crops, Next Generation Transgenic Crops, Risk Assessment and Regulatory Framework in the European Union Part III: Ocean Farming and Sustainable Aquaculture Science and Technology Aquaculture and Renewable Energy Systems, Integration of Aquaculture, Ecological Aquaculture, Integrated Multi-trophic (IMTA) Aquaculture, Sustainability Science in Aquapod Systems for Sustainable Ocean Aquaculture Carrying Capacity for Aquaculture, Modeling Frameworks for Determination of Carrying Capacity for Sustainable Bivalve Aquaculture Environmental Impacts of an Open Ocean Mariculture Operation in Kona, Hawaii Life Cycle Assessments and Their Applications to Aquaculture Production Systems Mariculture Systems, Integrated Land-Based Marine Aquaculture in the Mediterranean Marine Fisheries Enhancement, Coming of Age in the New Millennium Mussel Culture, Open Ocean Innovations Ocean Farming and Sustainable Aquaculture Science and Technology, An Introduction to Polyculture in Aquaculture Seaweed Aquaculture for Human Foods in Land-Based and IMTA Systems Shellfish Aquaculture, Methods of Sustainable Sustainable Ecological Aquaculture Part IV: Transgenic Livestock for Food Production Avian Specific Transgenesis Disease-Resistant Transgenic Animals Livestock Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Nuclear Transfer to Produce Transgenic Mammals Transgenic Fishes: Applications, State of the Art, and Risk Concerns Transgenic Livestock for Food Production, Introduction Transgenic Livestock Technologies Transgenic Livestock, Decreasing Environmental Impact of Transgenic Livestock, Enhanced Nutritional Quality in Transgenic Livestock, Ethical Concerns and Debate Transgenic Technologies and Increased Livestock Fertility Transgenics: Alternative Gene Transfer Methods Part III: Ocean Farming and Sustainable Aquaculture Science and Technology Aquaculture and Renewable Energy Systems, Integration of Aquaculture, Ecological Aquaculture, Integrated Multi-trophic (IMTA) Aquaculture, Sustainability Science in Aquapod Systems for Sustainable Ocean Aquaculture Carrying Capacity for Aquaculture, Modeling Frameworks for Determination of Carrying Capacity for Sustainable Bivalve Aquaculture Environmental Impacts of an Open Ocean Mariculture Operation in Kona, Hawaii Life Cycle Assessments and Their Applications to Aquaculture Production Systems Mariculture Systems, Integrated Land-Based Marine Aquaculture in the Mediterranean Marine Fisheries Enhancement, Coming of Age in the New Millennium Mussel Culture, Open Ocean Innovations Ocean Farming and Sustainable Aquaculture Science and Technology, An Introduction to Polyculture in Aquaculture Seaweed Aquaculture for Human Foods in Land-Based and IMTA Systems Shellfish Aquaculture, Methods of Sustainable Sustainable Ecological Aquaculture Part IV: Transgenic Livestock for Food Production Avian Specific Transgenesis Disease-Resistant Transgenic Animals Livestock Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Nuclear Transfer to Produce Transgenic Mammals Transgenic Fishes: Applications, State of the Art, and Risk Concerns Transgenic Livestock for Food Production, Introduction Transgenic Livestock Technologies Transgenic Livestock, Decreasing Environmental Impact of Transgenic Livestock, Enhanced Nutritional Quality in Transgenic Livestock, Ethical Concerns and Debate Transgenic Technologies and Increased Livestock Fertility Transgenics: Alternative Gene Transfer Methods Part III: Ocean Farming and Sustainable Aquaculture Science and Technology Aquaculture and Renewable Energy Systems, Integration of Aquaculture, Ecological Aquaculture, Integrated Multi-trophic (IMTA) Aquaculture, Sustainability Science in Aquapod Systems for Sustainable Ocean Aquaculture Carrying Capacity for Aquaculture, Modeling Frameworks for Determination of Carrying Capacity for Sustainable Bivalve Aquaculture Environmental Impacts of an Open Ocean Mariculture Operation in Kona, Hawaii Life Cycle Assessments and Their Applications to Aquaculture Production Systems Mariculture Systems, Integrated Land-Based Marine Aquaculture in the Mediterranean Marine Fisheries Enhancement, Coming of Age in the New Millennium Mussel Culture, Open Ocean Innovations Ocean Farming and Sustainable Aquaculture Science and Technology, An Introduction to Polyculture in Aquaculture Seaweed Aquaculture for Human Foods in Land-Based and IMTA Systems Shellfish Aquaculture, Methods of Sustainable Sustainable Ecological Aquaculture Part IV: Transgenic Livestock for Food Production Avian Specific Transgenesis Disease-Resistant Transgenic Animals Livestock Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Nuclear Transfer to Produce Transgenic Mammals Transgenic Fishes: Applications, State of the Art, and Risk Concerns Transgenic Livestock for Food Production, Introduction Transgenic Livestock Technologies Transgenic Livestock, Decreasing Environmental Impact of Transgenic Livestock, Enhanced Nutritional Quality in Transgenic Livestock, Ethical Concerns and Debate Transgenic Technologies and Increased Livestock Fertility Transgenics: Alternative Gene Transfer Methods Index

Review of the Fisheries of the Salton Sea, California, USA: Past, Present, and Future

The Salton Sea is an endorheic, 980-km2 salt lake in the Sonoran Desert of southern California. The historical fish community switched from freshwater to marine species as salinity increased due to evaporation and brackish water inflows. Three species, bairdiella (Bairdiella icistia), orangemouth corvina (Cynoscion xanthulus), and sargo (Anisotremus davidsoni), established from introductions beginning in 1929. Thirty-four marine fish species from the northern Gulf of California were introduced between 1929 and 1956. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, a hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus x O. urolepis hornorum) invaded the Salton Sea and became dominant by numbers and weight. Research has shown that nearshore and estuarine areas have the highest catch rates of tilapia (over 11 kg/50 m net/h). Orangemouth corvina, bairdiella, sargo, and the hybrid tilapia grew faster, but had shorter life spans than conspecifics elsewhere, and Salton Sea conspecifics of 50 years ago. All four species aggregated along the nearshore and estuarine areas in the summer for reproduction and relief from low oxygen conditions in the pelagic areas of the marine lake. Restoration alternatives for the Salton Sea must recognize the value of estuarine and nearshore areas as essential fish habitats for the Salton Sea fisheries ecosystem.

Feeding Ecology of Salton Sea Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.)

Abstract We investigated the feeding ecology of tilapia (Oreochromis spp) in the Salton Sea. Stomachs and intestines were sampled at each season. Fish foraged at the surface during the summer when dissolved oxygen was low. The proportion of plant materials in fish stomachs was higher at river mouth areas. Diatoms dominated the phytoplankton; rotifers were dominant during the spring and summer; copepods were dominant during the fall; barnacle larvae dominant during the winter. Pile worms (Neanthes succinea) were present throughout the year. Feeding activity was reduced in the summer, when dissolved oxygen was low and water temperature high.

Non-dioxin like polychlorinated biphenyl indicator congeners in Northwest Atlantic spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias)

In the Northwest Atlantic Ocean (NWAO), spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) is a promising commercial species following of collapse of traditional groundfish stocks. There are little available data assessing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in NWAO spiny dogfish. Here, six non-dioxin like PCB indicator congeners used in European Union regulations (EU NDL-PCB) were quantified via gas chromatography/mass spectrometry in 50 mature male spiny dogfish landed in southern New England. The average total concentration of EU NDL-PCBs was 58±43ng/g (mean±1 standard deviation). PCB values (corrected for co-elution) were below the 200ng/g EU regulatory limit. Results provide first recent regional insight into the PCB content of spiny dogfish in the NWAO. However, our study offers only a snapshot of one particular dogfish population, and might not be representative for the whole NWAO. This study underscores the need for further testing in this species.