Bart Van der Bruggen

The use of nanoparticles in polymeric and ceramic membrane structures: review of manufacturing procedures and performance improvement for water treatment.

Membrane separations are powerful tools for various applications, including wastewater treatment and the removal of contaminants from drinking water. The performance of membranes is mainly limited by material properties. Recently, successful attempts have been made to add nanoparticles or nanotubes to polymers in membrane synthesis, with particle sizes ranging from 4 nm up to 100 nm. Ceramic membranes have been fabricated with catalytic nanoparticles for synergistic effects on the membrane performance. Breakthrough effects that have been reported in the field of water and wastewater treatment include fouling mitigation, improvement of permeate quality and flux enhancement. Nanomaterials that have been used include titania, alumina, silica, silver and many others. This paper reviews the role of engineered nanomaterials in (pressure driven) membrane technology for water treatment, to be applied in drinking water production and wastewater recycling. Benefits and drawbacks are described, which should be taken into account in further studies on potential risks related to release of nanoparticles into the environment.

Removal of pollutants from surface water and groundwater by nanofiltration: overview of possible applications in the drinking water industry.

During the last decade, nanofiltration (NF) made a breakthrough in drinking water production for the removal of pollutants. The combination of new standards for drinking water quality and the steady improvement of the nanofiltration process have led to new insights, possible applications and new projects on lab-scale, pilot scale and industrial scale. This paper offers an overview of the applications in the drinking water industry that have already been realised or that are suggested on the basis of lab-scale research. Applications can be found in the treatment of surface water as well as groundwater. The possibility of using NF for the removal of hardness, natural organic material (NOM), micropollutants such as pesticides and VOCs, viruses and bacteria, salinity, nitrates, and arsenic will be discussed. Some of these applications have proven to be reliable and can be considered as known techniques; other applications are still studied on laboratory scale. Modelling is difficult due to effects of fouling and interaction between different components. The current insight in the separation mechanisms will be briefly discussed.

Ozone oxidation for the alleviation of membrane fouling by natural organic matter: A review

Membrane fouling by natural organic matter is one of the main problems that slow down the application of membrane technology in water treatment. O(3) is able to efficiently change the physico-chemical characteristics of natural organic matter in order to reduce membrane fouling. This paper presents the state-of-the-art knowledge of the reaction mechanisms between natural organic matter and molecular O(3) or *OH radicals, together with an in-depth discussion of the interactions between natural organic matter and membranes that govern membrane fouling, inclusive the effect of O(3) oxidation on it.

Mechanisms of solute rejection in solvent resistant nanofiltration: the effect of solvent on solute rejection.

The separation performance of solvent resistant nanofiltration (SRNF) membranes was studied in a systematic way to elucidate the complex mechanisms involved in rejection of solutes. Rejection of three dyes (Sudan II, Sudan Black, Sudan 408) from common organic solvents (methanol, ethanol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene and n-hexane) through a polyimide based SRNF membrane, STARMEM™122, was studied. It was found that the rejection of the STARMEM™122 membrane was lower than that indicated by the manufacturer. The experimental observations for Sudan II were not promising for the rejection study as they were lower than expected. Sudan Black and Sudan 408, which are larger solutes than Sudan II, provided more interesting insights. The effects of the solvent on the membrane and solute were studied separately. A higher permeation rate of ketones and alcohols was observed, while permeabilities of non-polar solvents were low which shows that this membrane shows higher affinity toward semi-polar solvents (alcohols, ketones). The effect of the solvent on the solutes rejection, based on the results for Sudan Black and Sudan 408, was studied for solvents in the same chemical groups, since the membrane showed a similar separation performance for solvents with similar functional groups (e.g. alcohols). The effect of solvent on solute molecular size was investigated by using simulation with Molecular Dynamics. It was shown that the effective size of a molecule is dependent on the solvent due to solvation and hydration of the solute by the solvent. The size of the solute in the solvent belonging to a similar family was studied separately. It was clear that the rejection was influenced by molecular size of the solute in the same group of solvents. A surprising negative rejection of solutes was achieved for n-hexane. Although solutes in n-hexane have higher volume compared to those in other solvents, the affinity between the solute and membrane increases the solute permeation in the presence of n-hexane. The affinity of solvent and solute for the membrane was investigated by means of solubility parameters for solvents within the same chemical family. In two different systems including two different solvents and one solute (Sudan Black and methanol, Sudan Black and ethanol), lower rejection (in this case for Sudan Black and methanol) was achieved when the solutes have higher affinity toward the solvent. Finally, it was found that in a system comprising the solvent, solute and membrane, interactions between solvent and membrane have much more effect on separation than solvent-solute interactions.