Beatrice B. Whiting

A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Sex Differences in the Behavior of Children Aged Three Through 11

Summary Our study suggests that (a) there are universal sex differences in the behavior of children 3–11 years of age, but the differences are not consistent nor as great as the studies of American and Western European children would suggest; (b) socialization pressure in the form of task assignment and the associated frequency of interaction with different categories of individuals—i.e., infants, adults, and peers—may well explain many of these differences; (c) aggression, perhaps especially rough and tumble play, and touching behavior seem the best candidates for biophysical genesis; (d) all of the behaviors that are characteristic of males and females seem remarkably malleable under the impact of socialization pressures, which seem to be remarkably consistent from one society to another; and (e) the difference in many of the types of behavior seems to be one of style rather than intent: i.e., seeking help (“feminine”) rather than attention (“masculine”), and justifying dominance by appealing to the rul...

My Brother's Keeper: Child and Sibling Caretaking [and Comments and Reply]

Children often act as caretakers responsible for other children. Such child caretaking varies widely in its frequency, as well as in the degree of institutionalization, relationship to parental caretaking, degree of indulgence, and incidence at differing ages. Residence and household patterns, size of the family, and the subsistence economy, daily routines, and work load of the family are important in determining availability of child caretakers in the home. The United States appears to have fewer alternative caretakers available, and less child caretaking, than most societies. Child caretaking is related to a number of developmental areas during childhood; eight are suggestedin this review: (1) mother-child relationships and attachment; (2) conceptions and emergence of childhood stages; (3) formation and organization of play groups; (4) development of social responsibility; (5) sex differences; (6) development of individual diferences; (7) development of cognitive-style differences; and (8) motivation and classroom performance.

Women and Dependency

women are more emotionally passive and dependent than men. It is to be expected that this theme appears predominantly in the writings of men, but what is more surprising is that it also prevails in the writings of women. This view seems to be shared by professional women in clinical psychology and child development as well as by feminists in other fields. Although most of the women authors believe that feminine dependency is due to expectations and conditioning, nonetheless both radicals and nonradicals alike accept the argument that women can be observed to have greater needs for help, support, and reassurance than do men. The sampling of quotations below illustrates how widespread is this point of view among American and European women concerned with sex differences and women’s potential. &dquo;Adolescent girls are more dependent on and responsive to others in their social environment than are adolescent boys...&dquo; &dquo;