Beatrice Conradie

Wages and wage elasticities for wine and table grapes in South Africa

Abstract A survey of 190 wine and table grape farmers in the Western Cape puts the average wage for farm labour at R928 per month in 2003 and R1123 per month in 2004. Output per worker has doubled since 1983. On farms with grape harvesters, labour is 30 per cent more productive (48 ton/worker) than on farms where wine grapes are picked by hand (37 ton/worker). At 9.75 tons per worker, table grapes are four times as labour-intensive as wine grapes. Resident men dominate the workforce on wine farms, while the resident female workforce is 20 per cent larger than the resident male workforce on table grape farms. Seasonal workers contribute a third of labour in table grapes, and brokers less than ten per cent in either case. In a single-equation short-run Hicksian demand function, wage, output, capital levels and mechanisation intensities are highly significant determinants of employment. Higher wages decrease employment and larger output increases employment. More mechanisation, measured by the number of tractors used to produce a ton of fruit, raises labour intensity too. Grape harvesters could not be shown to reduce jobs. The ten per cent rise in the minimum wage planned for March 2005 could reduce employment by 3.3 per cent in the wine industry and 5.9 per cent in the table grape industry, but it is more likely that the wage increase will be offset against fewer benefits. The average expected impact is about the same as for all agriculture and manufacturing as a whole.

What is the appropriate level of aggregation for productivity indices? Comparing district, regional and national measures

Abstract This paper examines the appropriate level of aggregation for the construction of total factor productivity (TFP) indices. The dataset covers the magisterial districts and statistical regions of the Western Cape for the years 1952 to 2002. Over these five decades agricultural production in the Western Cape grew twice as fast as in the country as a whole but this average masks substantial regional variation. Results show that TFP growth was negative in the Karoo, moderate in the Swartland, Overberg and Southern Cape, and generally above 2% per year in the Boland and Breede River Valleys, where there is extensive irrigation.

What do we mean when we say casualisation of farm work is rising?: Evidence from fruit farms in the Western Cape

Abstract Du Toit & Allys (2003) results on the casualisation of farm work in the Western Cape confirmed the worst fears of sociologists: Globalisation and/or labour laws increased casualisation in agriculture. New labour data and a study conducted in 1976 allow one to revisit the casualisation result for the table grape industry of the Hex River Valley. This paper resolves imprecise definitions of regular versus permanent status, and of casual versus seasonal status. It also examines casualisation and job shedding. Results show a decrease in the share of seasonal work and no change in the casual component of seasonal work. The job status of most farm women in the Valley improved as a result of legislative changes implemented since 1994. Outsourcing is present but insignificant at this point. On the whole data for the table grape industry of the Hex River Valley does not support the hypothesis that globalisation and labour market reform caused dramatic increases in casualisation.

Pinus saw timber tree optimisation in South Africa: a comparison of mechanised tree optimisation (harvester/processor) versus current manual methods

Both Cut to Length (CTL) and Full Tree/Tree Length (FT/TL) ground-based systems are used to harvest pine in South Africa. The fully mechanised CTL system is the most recently introduced system in South Africa. One of the reasons for the limited use of CTL harvesting systems in South Africa is the perceived inability of the harvesting head to accurately optimise tree lengths when the logs produced are high-value saw timber logs that have multiple specifications and lengths. The study showed that tree diameter, branch characteristics, and other defects such as forked trees had no significant effect on the ability of the harvester or processor to optimise tree lengths as accurately as currently used manual methods for both value and fibre recovery. The accuracy of the log lengths produced by the harvester was not influenced by the diameter of the trees.

Jackal Narratives: Predator Control and Contested Ecologies in the Karoo, South Africa

This article considers the historical roots of, and scientific evidence for, rival ‘jackal narratives’ about the ecology and control of the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) in the Karoo, South Africa. During the mid 20th century, state-supported co-operative hunting and jackal-proof fences largely contained jackal predation. But as South Africa moved towards democracy in the 1990s, in a context of falling on-farm employment and the ending of subsidised fences and state-supported predator control, jackal predation re-emerged as a problem for economically and politically marginalised commercial sheep farmers in the Karoo. When CapeNature (the government body responsible for maintaining biodiversity on agricultural lands in the Western Cape province) sought to restrict the trapping and shooting of predators by farmers, an emotive battle with political ramifications erupted over the science of predator ecology. A rival ‘citizen science’ from farmers and hunters emerged to challenge the dominant ‘environmental jackal narrative’, which blamed hunting for the increase in jackals. We argue that the environmental jackal narrative was supported by the science of predator ecology (showing that predator numbers can increase as a result of persecution), but that the linked policy recommendation that farmers learn to ‘live with the jackal’ occupied less solid scientific and historical grounds. The rival ‘farmer jackal narrative’, which sought to justify the lethal control of jackals, resonated not only with farmers’ historical experience but also with some emerging conservation theories and practices regarding the culling of jackals in national parks.

Are hunting clubs the solution to small stock depredation? The case of Ceres, 1979 and 1980.

Abstract In 1979 and 1980 predators were under control on sheep farms in the Ceres Karoo. At the time, a subsidised hunting club assisted landowners with predator control measures. A farm-level analysis of data from the Ceres hunting clubs logbooks reveals that four out of five farms have experienced no predator damage whatsoever. For those reporting problems, the typical loss was in the region of one per cent of the estimated turnover. Lynx (caracal), leopards and feral dogs were responsible for most of the damage. Black-backed jackals were not a serious concern, but were also more difficult to catch. Lynx and feral dogs were controlled with ease. Death of some innocent animals was also recorded. The hunting club system thus appears to be succeeding in controlling certain predators, albeit with adverse consequences to other animals. Exploratory statistical analysis establishes that livestock losses lead to increased control efforts, which in turn leads to the death of more targeted and untargeted animals. There is even some evidence that more control efforts reduce stock losses in the following year.

Productivity benchmarking of free-range sheep operations for Laingsburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT Data envelopment analysis (DEA) was used to benchmark extensive sheep operations in Laingsburg in the Central Karoo, South Africa, with data from the 2012 production season. An input oriented variable returns to scale frontier identified twelve efficient firms, and nine more that are technically efficient but not scale efficient. The top thirds overall efficiency score was 0.999. For the bottom third, the average efficiency score was just 0.346, which indicates that there is substantial room for improvement among bottom third producers in this production system. Overall, efficiency was correlated with stocking density, flock size, unit production cost and profitability, cumulative family experience of farming and the use of family labour, but not with farm size, breed choice or any proxy for individual experience or ability. Predation rates in particular were uncorrelated with productivity scores and reproductive performance was only weakly correlated with it. While most farms could theoretically improve their efficiency by intensifying their operations, a closer analysis of best practice firms revealed a spectrum of optimal intensities, including the possibility of restoring rangelands by deliberate understocking. Grazing strategy and the degree of labour self-sufficiency emerged as the key determinants of optimal intensity.

Harvest of hope : the contribution of peri-urban agriculture in South African townships

ABSTRACT This study investigates the efficiency of urban micro-farms in two Cape Town townships, Nyanga and Khayelitsha, and their contribution to livelihoods and food security. The Harvest of Hope programme provides credit, access to inputs and an outlet for organic vegetables. Comprehensive data on inputs are limited and in this study only land, labour, seeds and seedlings, compost and farmer experience are included. Non-parametric models are used to generate individual efficiency measures relative to best practice. The results revealed an average level of overall, technical and scale efficiency of 72.4%, 79.7% and 90.6%, respectively. Overall efficiency was negatively correlated with land holdings and the use of compost and seedlings. This is supported by the finding that the nine best-practice farms were characterised by a smaller scale of production, indicating that efficiency losses are experienced as greater quantities of inputs are used. In terms of area differences, Nyanga farms exhibit significantly higher technical efficiency, whereas farms in Khayelitsha are more scale efficient. Expenditure on compost and seed added value, although mulching or operator experience did not increase output substantially. The latter can be explained by the highly effective training programme provided that makes prior experience unnecessary to achieve good practice. Fully efficient farms are R2 600 per plot more profitable than inefficient farms, while farms that need a windbreak earn R700 less per plot per season than more sheltered operations. These results are the first of their kind for South Africa and lay the foundation for more effective extension to the sector.

Urban agriculture's enterprise potential : exploring vegetable box schemes in Cape Town

ABSTRACT Urban agriculture is potentially an important element of land reform and economic development programmes in South Africa. The social value of urban agriculture, such as improving food security, developing a sense of community and promoting ecological conservation, is well documented. But in order to effectively contribute to development agendas, urban agriculture must also present viable, sustainable economic opportunities. This study sets forth vegetable box schemes as a context-appropriate, economically feasible urban agriculture enterprise for which there is growing consumer demand. A survey of 354 subscribers to vegetable box schemes in Cape Town is analysed, finding these households source half of their fresh produce and a quarter of their total groceries from box schemes. The study explores dimensions of consumer satisfaction and considers ways in which box schemes may be expanded. This paper also offers a brief comparison of different box scheme models in order to demonstrate that a development-oriented social enterprise model can compete with other for-profit models in the market.

Explaining declining agricultural total factor productivity in the Karoo districts of the Western Cape, 1952 to 2002

ABSTRACT Conradie et al. (2009a and 2009b) identified the Central Karoo as the worst performing area in the Western Cape, but left the reasons for the regions declining total factor productivity (TFP) unexplained. The current paper uses a combination of literature review and analysis of anecdotal evidence to evaluate a set of hypothetical reasons for the decline. The world wool price clearly affected farm-level profitability, putting up to 50% of sheep farms out of business in some parts of the Central Karoo. If census data were properly collected, this in itself should not have affected TFP. The evidence for overgrazing and increasingly ineffective predator control was less convincing. For example, there is no conclusive evidence yet on whether game and lifestyle farms exert any negative externalities on remaining sheep operations. The cost-price squeeze resulting from falling prices and rising input costs has led to an extension of production systems and poor maintenance which will no doubt lead to a further decline in productivity. We concluded that the rate at which the Central Karoo is shedding sheep farming, and the reasons for and effects of it, should be investigated further.