Belarmain Fandohan

Women’s Traditional Knowledge, Use Value, and the Contribution of Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) to Rural Households’ Cash Income in Benin

Women’s Traditional Knowledge, Use Value, and the Contribution of Tamarind (Tamarindus indicaL.) to Rural Households’ Cash Income in Benin. This study examined differences in knowledge, use values, and contribution of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) to women’s cash income during the dry season, focusing on seven tribal groups in Benin. Data were gathered using semistructured individual interviews and monitoring, and were analyzed using quantitative ethnobotanical methods. Principal component analysis was applied to describe the use value and use forms of tamarind according to different tribes. Tamarind was found to play an important role in local communities’ livelihoods. Overall, 26 different uses were mentioned for tamarind products. Most commonly, the fruit (pulp) was used to make beverages, as a laxative and purgative, and it seems to be the only plant part sold commercially. Bark was frequently used as a medicine to treat wounds, and leaves were used to make porridge and as an antibiotic. Medicinal, cultural, and material use categories were correlated best with the Fulani, whereas commerce was most correlated with Gourma tribes (PCA analysis). There were significant differences for tamarind utilization among the tribal groups, with overall ethnobotanical use values (EUVT) ranging from 10 to 14, and contribution to cash income ranging from 8.8% to 56.4%. In view of its domestication potential, it is crucial that traditional tribal knowledge of tamarind be preserved and integrated into management policies. Further development and research needs for utilization and conservation are improvement of commercialization, organization of market channels, and extent of genetic diversity within and among populations.ResumenSavoir endogène des femmes, valeur d’usage et contribution du tamarinier au revenu des ménages ruraux au Bénin. Cette étude a mis en évidence les différences entre groupes tribales sur les connaissances, les valeurs d’usage, et la contribution du tamarinier au revenu monétaire des femmes pendant la saison sèche au Bénin. Les données ont été collectées grâce à des entretiens individuels semi-structurés et analysées au moyen de méthodes ethnobotanique quantitatives. L’analyse en composante principale a été appliquée pour décrire la valeur d’usage et les formes d’utilisation du tamarinier en fonction des différentes tribus. Le tamarinier joue un rôle important dans les activités génératrices de revenues pour les communautés locales. Au total 26 différentes utilisations ont été mentionnées pour les produits issus du tamarinier. Généralement, la pulpe du fruit est utilisée pour faire des boissons, comme un laxatif et un purgatif et semble être la seule partie commercialisée de la plante. L’écorce est fréquemment utilisée en médecine traditionnelle pour traiter les blessures profondes alors que les feuilles sont utilisées pour la préparation de bouillis et comme un antibiotique. L’espèce a plus une valeur médicinale, culturelle et artisanale pour les Fulani alors qu’elle a une plus grande valeur commerciale pour les tribus Gourma (analyse ACP). Des différences significatives ont été observées entre les tribus sur l’usage du tamarinier, avec des valeurs d’usage ethnobotanique total comprises entre 10 et 14 et des contributions au revenu monétaire variant de 8.8% à 56.4%. Compte tenu de son potentiel à la domestication, il est crucial que les connaissances traditionnelles sur le tamarinier soit préservées et intégrées dans les politiques de gestion. L’amélioration de commercialisation, l’organisation de circuits de commercialisation, l’évaluation de la diversité génétique intra et inter populations au sein de l’espèce sont nécessaires pour assurer son utilisation durable et sa conservation.

Home gardens: an assessment of their biodiversity and potential contribution to conservation of threatened species and crop wild relatives in Benin

Despite growing literature supporting the importance of home gardens (HG) as biodiversity hotspots, knowledge of patterns of their contribution to conservation of threatened species and crop wild relatives (CWR) across climate and culture in Africa is still limited. This investigation was conducted across three climatic zones to assess the floristic diversity of home gardens and the extent to which they contribute to conservation of threatened species and CWR. Overall, 240 home gardens were sampled and their floristic diversity assessed. The ecological importance of recorded species was determined per climatic zone using the importance value index (IVI). A cluster analysis was performed to group the species according to their IVI-values and a principal component analysis helped to identify the most important species. 285 species were inventoried throughout the study area. Home garden species’ diversity globally declined from the drier to the wetter zone but was highest in the transition zone. The average number of species found per HG was 10.1 and varied weakly across zones (9.07, Guineo-Congolean zone; 10.77, Sudano-Guinean zone; and 10.53, Sudanian zone). The most important home gardens species in the Sudanian, the Sudano-Guinean and the Guineo-Congolean zones were respectively: Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench and Hibiscus asper Hook.f.; Solanum lycopersicum L. and Zea mays L.; Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. and Senna occidentalis (L.) Link. They were mainly vegetables and used as food and/or medicinal plant species. Twenty CWR and twelve threatened species were recorded and were also mainly used for food and medicinal purposes. Thorough research on socioeconomic factors supporting possession of HG and choice of managed species as well as indigenous management strategies of HG and dynamic of traditional knowledge related to HG may help to deeply assess home gardens’ effectiveness in biodiversity conservation.

A countrywide multi-ethnic assessment of local communities’ perception of climate change in Benin (West Africa)

Climate change poses significant challenges to biodiversity, food security, water availability and health, especially in Africa. Research within local communities can lead to a better understanding of the observed changes in climate, and help to find more appropriate strategies for dealing with them. A number of studies have been carried out in West Africa, but most focus on Sahelian countries and all focus on a single area with one or two ethnic groups. Therefore, to determine whether a countrywide multi-ethnic assessment could provide more accurate information, we studied perceptions of climate change in local communities in Benin. Two focus groups (men and women) were carried out in nine villages. Local farmers and herders were asked about the changes in climate they have observed, the effects of these changes, and how they have adapted to them. Observed changes in climate followed a latitudinal trend, and were in agreement with available climatic studies. Some of the observed changes in climate had not been reported before for this latitude in West Africa. The effects of these climatic changes and the adaptive strategies used differed between areas and ethnic groups. Some adaptive strategies were only used by some ethnic groups. We found that the main obstacles preventing communities from adopting new strategies were unavailability of credit, lack of improved seeds and insufficient information. The findings support the conclusion that country-level multi-ethnic assessments provide key information for both climate change research and policy development.

Quantitative morphological descriptors confirm traditionally classified morphotypes of Tamarindus indica L. fruits

This study used quantitative descriptors to assess morphological variation of traditionally classified tamarind fruits and its relation to ecological conditions. Tamarind trees were sampled spanning locally recognized fruit morphotypes within three ecological zones. Twelve morphological descriptors were measured on 3000 fruits and seeds. Univariate and canonical discrimiant analyses performed on morphological descriptors revealed significant differences and confirmed morphotypes distinction as perceived by local people. Nevertheless, the variance components analysis showed substantial variations within morphotypes, suggesting a significant heterogeneity within fruits traditionally classified as belonging to the same morphotypes. To get a more powerful morphological discrimination, quantitative descriptors should hence be combined with locally perceived qualitative traits (pulp taste and colour). Observed variations were significantly correlated with ecological factors. Fruits’ and seeds’ size and mass tended to increase with humidity and decline with aridity. Results also indicated that fruit mass is a good predicator of pulp yield, although its predicting power differed among morphotypes. Outputs from the variance component analysis suggested that pending further genetic studies, germplasm collection should be done by sampling a moderate number of trees per morphotype, to ensure capturing a wide range of genetic diversity. The observed extensive variation has provided with relevant information for further improvement programs.

Small scale farmers’ vulnerability to climatic changes in southern Benin: the importance of farmers’ perceptions of existing institutions

Farmers in rural Africa use a number of adaptive strategies to cope with observed climatic changes and their impacts on agriculture. Most studies on adaptive capacity focus on socio-economic parameters (such as poverty or education), and few provide detailed analysis on the role played by different institutions at local level, and the effects of how these institutions are perceived on farmers’ adaptation. Semi-structured interviews were conducted among 46 households from seven villages in southern Benin (West Africa), and among representatives of several institutions at the local level. Half the participants were involved in Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) development projects and half were independent farmers. Results indicate that independent farmers mostly use non-agricultural coping strategies (loans, work in town) while project farmers mainly use agricultural adaptive strategies (improved seed varieties). Lack of adaptive capacity of independent farmers is linked to weak State institutions at the local level. Due to their lack of efficiency and high corruption rates, local State representatives are mistrusted. NGOs are trusted and seek for help, even by independent farmers. Even if NGOs do not have climate change adaptation in their agendas, they promote activities, which help reduce farmers’ vulnerability. Although our results are limited to south-western Benin, they question the way adaptation is promoted today, for instance through the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (through the National Adaptation Programmes of Action).

Biodiversity conservation in home gardens: traditional knowledge, use patterns and implications for management

There is increasing interest in home gardens (HGs) as biodiversity hot spots. However, knowledge on how sociocultural characteristics and environment influence knowledge and management of HG species is still limited. Eliciting these links helps illustrate how HG could conserve biodiversity. This study addressed the following hypotheses: (i) age and gender shape the knowledge of HG species; (ii) knowledge on HG species varies across phytochorological zones; (iii) use values (UVs) of HG species are correlated to their ecological importance and (iv) HG species is mostly used for food and medicinal purposes. Data were collected from 285 HGs, across three phytochorological zones of Benin, using semi-structured interviews. Quantitative analyses were performed using ethnobotanical indexes and statistical tests. Our results confirmed our assumptions except for hypothesis (i). Gender and age did not determine knowledge on HG species. Nevertheless, noticeable differences were encountered among the zones regarding species, knowledge and use types. UV and ecological importance were highly correlated. Our results support the point that HGs sustain food and medicine supply while contributing to conservation of local biodiversity. However, with modern mutations, HGs are unlikely to be preserved if they are not actively mainstreamed in production and conservation policies.

Floristic and dendrometric analysis of woodlands in the Sudano-Guinean zone: a case study of Belléfoungou forest reserve in Benin

Abstract A floristic and dendrometric analysis was carried out using 15 square plots of 1 ha each in the Belléfoungou forest reserve, located in the Sudano-Guinean zone of Benin. Species and diameter at breast height of trees were recorded. Multidimensional scaling and importance value index of species were used to identify vegetation types in the reserve: (1) Isoberlinia tomentosa-dominated vegetation type, (2) Isoberlinia doka and Burkea africana-dominated vegetation type and (3) Vitellaria paradoxa and Isoberlinia doka-dominated vegetation type. Significant differences were noted between the three vegetation types with respect to the basal area of trees. This varied from 8.55 m2/ha (vegetation type 3) to 13.36 m2/ha (vegetation type 2). The overall woody species richness was 57 species. The stem diameter structures of all three vegetation types showed an inverse “J” shape, suggesting that the study reserve has stable natural vegetation with relatively more young stems than large stems. Setting and implementation of a sustainable management plan, and supervision reinforcement were suggested to enable conservation of the Belléfoungou forest reserve.

Efficiency of inventory plot patterns in quantitative analysis of vegetation: a case study of tropical woodland and dense forest in Benin

The main issue in forest inventory is the reliability of data collected, which depends on the shape and size of inventoried plots. There is also a need for harmonisation of inventoried plot patterns in West Africa. This study focused on the impact of plot patterns on the quantitative analysis of two vegetation types of West Africa based on case studies from Benin. Twenty and fifteen plots of 1 ha each were demarcated in dense forest and woodland, respectively. Each 1 ha plot was divided into 100 quadrats of 100 m2 each and diameter at breast height (dbh) of trees was recorded in each quadrat. The required time to measuring trees diameter in each 1 ha plot was also recorded to compute the mean inventory effort. From the 100 quadrats in each 1 ha plot, 14 subplots of different shapes and sizes were considered by grouping together adjacent quadrats. The basal area of each subplot was computed and the relationship between estimation bias of the basal area and the size of subplots was modeled using Smiths Law (Smith 1938). The mean absolute error of the shape parameter c of Weibull distribution was computed for each of the subplot shape, size and direction. The direction and shape of subplots did not influence significantly (P > 0.05) the precision of the quantitative analysis of vegetation. However, square subplots were suitable in practice. On the contrary, plot size was significantly (P < 0.05) and inversely correlated to estimation efficiency. The optimal plot size for quantitative analysis of vegetation was 1 800 and 2 000 m2 with an inventory effort of 0.51 and 0.85 man-days per subplot in woodland and dense forest, respectively. It is concluded that use of standard sample sizes will help to harmonise a forestry database and to carry out comparisons at regional level.

Natural variation in fruit characteristics and seed germination of Jatropha curcas in Benin, West Africa

Summary An investigation was conducted in the ten phytodistricts of Benin, West Africa, in order to assess the level of morphological variation in Jatropha curcas seed and their germination potential. Hierarchical classification of the morphological traits of seeds identified five morphotypes, using 54% of the overall morphological information. Canonical discriminant analysis performed on the five morphotypes revealed highly significant differences. Morphotype 1 included seeds from the phytodistricts of Côtier, Pobè, The Ouémé Valley, and Plateau. Morphotype 2 and Morphotype 5 seeds were from the phytodistricts of Bassila, Zou, and Borgou-Sud; while Morphotype 3 and Morphotype 4 seeds were from the phytodistricts of Borgou-Nord, the Atacora Chain, and Mekrou-Pendjari. Significant morphological variation existed within the seeds as a consequence of genetic make-up and/or environmental effects. Seed from Mekrou-Pendjari and the Atacora Chain were black, smooth, light (0.67 g seed–1), and small (1.76 cm-long and 1.15 cm-wide). Seed from Plateau, Côtier,The Ouémé Valley, and Pobè zones were brown, rough, heavy (0.84 g seed–1), and large (1.97cm-long, 1.2 cm-wide). All seed germination started 4 d after sowing and ended between day-7 and day-8. Seed germination timing varied significantly with morphotype.

Which one comes first, the tamarind or the Macrotermes termitarium?

Abstract The relationship between termitaria and their vegetation is being increasingly studied. Nonetheless, our understanding of the order of establishment of termitaria and their associated vegetations which may be relevant for developing conservation plans is limited. This study focuses on order of establishment of Macrotermes termitaria and associated plant species with a special focus on Tamarindus indica and was to answer whether tamarind trees establish before termitaria or reversely? A comparative analysis of T. indica-dominated vegetations on termitaria and adjacent vegetations was undertaken using a matrix involving 80 relevés across four phytogeographical districts (phytodistricts), and an Indicator Species Analysis. We discussed how informative vegetation data could be on termitaria and tamarind trees establishment order. Whatever the phytodistrict, vegetations associated with termitaria were found to be much similar to those of their adjacent areas. Overall, only seven species (not including T. indica) out of a total of 63 recorded were found to be confined to termitaria. These results would suggest termitaria to not be a factor controlling establishment of T. indica and most of the species their host. Comparative vegetation analysis was thus found not to be enough to stand on termitaria and T. indica establishment order. However, termitaria-tamarind associations may be profitable to both tamarind trees and termites: termitaria may help mitigate drought on tamarind trees under increasing drought conditions while tamarind trees may offer food to termites. Integration of information on termite species’ feeding preferences and ecology was proposed in order to improve current state of knowledge on tamarind-termite relationship.