Ben J. Searle

Testing the 3-factor model of occupational stress: The impact of demands, control and social support on a mail sorting task

This study tests a 3-factor model of occupational stress, which predicts that job demands, job control and social support influence levels of strain. In a laboratory simulation of mail sorting, task demands, control and social supports were manipulated systematically. Pre- and post-task measures of self reported stress and arousal were compared across groups. Performance was measured continuously during the computer task and all 120 participants reported their perceived performance afterwards. Stress was found to be higher and perceived performance was lower in conditions of high demand; this pattern was also observed in conditions of low social support. Contrary to the hypotheses put forward in this paper, task control did not affect stress and the manipulations did not interact to produce elevated stress. However, task performance was poorer in conditions of high demand and in conditions of low control, and there was a significant interaction between demand and control for performance. Work preference m...

Helping people to sort it out: The role of social support in the Job Strain Model

This paper reports three studies of occupational stress investigating the role of social support as an intervening variable in the Job Strain Model (Karasek, 1979). A computer simulated mail-sorting work environment was used to assess the effect of demands, control and social support on measures of strain, satisfaction, and perceived and actual task performance. The first experiment ( N =60) tests the basic Job Strain Model by manipulating levels of task demand and control. The second experiment ( N =120) compares high and low levels of two types of social support (informational support and emotional support) to determine whether and how they interact with extreme conditions of the Job Strain Model (high strain and low strain). The final experiment ( N =90) investigates positive and negative forms of social support (praise and criticism) in relation to extreme job strain conditions. Results show that the job strain model is consistent with the stress and performance data, although stress showed no Demand 2 Control interaction. Social supports increased arousal, satisfaction and perceived performance, but did not affect stress or task performance. Moreover, contrary to buffer theories, social supports did not interact with the job strain variables. Congruence between preferred and experienced emotional support levels also predicted performance.

Does personal initiative training work as a stress management intervention

An experimental trial is reported that compares 2 stress management intervention programs and a waitlist control. Both programs involved training in problem-focused strategies of identifying and changing the sources of stress. One of the programs contained additional content on how to display more personal initiative (PI). Both programs involved 2 sessions held 1 week apart, each session lasting 3-4 hr. Strain was measured before training and at 7 and 13 weeks after the initial session. Results show that both programs were effective at reducing strain, whereas the waitlist group showed no change in strain. The PI program increased proactive behavior at 7 weeks as determined by independent evaluations, although the same pattern was not observed for PI self-reports. Proactive behavior did not appear to mediate the effects of training programs on strain.

Modelling occupational stress and health: the impact of the demand–control model on academic research and on workplace practice

Kareseks demand–control model has been extremely influential and is widely used to predict a range of health outcomes, yet there have been comparatively few intervention studies and relatively little evidence of its impact on the design of work to improve health. This article discusses the tension between meeting the need for a model of psychosocial work factors and health outcomes which is simple enough to be theoretically useful in multidisciplinary research over a wide range of occupations yet is specific enough to generate useful information to influence policies and guide interventions. It is suggested that the success of the model in driving research has led to the neglect of a range of other psychosocial factors. Furthermore, while the appeal of the model lies in its apparent simplicity, variables are too broadly defined and complex to easily translate research findings into practical recommendations. To provide more practically useful evidence about risk factors, it is suggested that epidemiological studies should employ more clearly defined and specific variables incorporated in more complex psychosocial models which take into account the work context and the changing nature of work.

The Capability of Static and Dynamic Features to Distinguish Competent From Genuinely Expert Practitioners in Pediatric Diagnosis

Children’s Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia Objective: The authors describe the development of a new, more objective method of distinguishing experienced competent nonexpert from expert practitioners within pediatric intensive care. Background: Expert performance involves the acquisition and use of refined feature-event associations (cues) in the operational environment. Competent nonexperts, although experienced, possess rudimentary cue associations in memory. Thus, they cannot respond as efficiently or as reliably as their expert counterparts, particularly when key diagnostic information is unavail- able, such as that provided by dynamic cues. Method: This study involved the application of four distinct tasks in which the use of relevant cues could be expected to increase both the accuracy and the efficiency of diagnostic performance. These tasks included both static and dynamic stimuli that were varied systematically. A total of 50 experienced pediatric intensive staff took part in the study. Results: The sample clustered into two levels across the tasks: Participants who performed at a consistently high level throughout the four tasks were labeled experts, and participants who performed at a lower level throughout the tasks were labeled competent nonexperts. The groups differed in their responses to the diagnostic scenarios presented in two of the tasks and their ability to maintain performance in the absence of dynamic features. Conclusion: Experienced pediatricians can be decomposed into two groups on the basis of their capacity to acquire and use cues; these groups differ in their diagnostic accuracy and in their ability to maintain performance in the absence of dynamic features. Application: The tasks may be used to identify practitioners who are failing to acquire expertise at a rate consistent with their experience, position, or training. This information may be used to guide targeted training efforts.

Hindrances are not threats: advancing the multidimensionality of work stress.

The challenge-hindrance framework has proved useful for explaining inconsistencies in relationships between work stressors and important outcomes. By introducing the distinction between threat and hindrance to this framework, we capture the potential for personal harm or loss (threat) associated with stressors, as distinct from the potential to block goal attainment (hindrance) or promote gain (challenge). In Study 1, survey data were collected from 609 retail workers, 220 of whom responded 6 months later. The results supported a 3-factor threat-hindrance-challenge stressor structure and showed that threat stressors are associated with increased psychological distress and emotional exhaustion, and reduced dedication, whereas hindrance stressors undermine dedication but may not be related to distress or exhaustion with threats included in the model. Study 2 utilized a diary study design, with data collected from 207 workers over 3 workdays. Findings revealed that the threat, hindrance, and challenge appraisals of individual workers are statistically distinct, and associated with stressors and well-being as anticipated: threats with role conflict and anxiety, hindrances with organizational constraints and fatigue, and challenges with skill demands and enthusiasm. Overall, moving to a 3-dimensional challenge-hindrance-threat framework for stressors and stress appraisals will support a more accurate picture regarding the nature, processes, and effects of stressors on individuals and organizations, and ensure prevention efforts are not misguided.

The merits of measuring challenge and hindrance appraisals

Background and Objectives: The challenge–hindrance framework has shown that challenge stressors (work characteristics associated with potential personal gain) tend to have positive outcomes, whereas hindrance stressors (those which obstruct goals) have negative outcomes. However, typical research methods assume that stressors allocated to these categories are appraised consistently by different people and across different situations. We validate new measures of challenge and hindrance appraisals and demonstrate their utility in stress research. Design and Methods: We used a cross-sectional survey of American employees (Study 1, n = 333), a diary survey of Australian employees (Study 2, n = 241), and a survey of Australian college students whose performance was evaluated independently (Study 3, n = 350). Results: Even after accounting for the effects of stressors, challenge and hindrance appraisals consistently explained unique variance in affective states, with indications that stressors have indirect effects via appraisals. Such effects were seen within- as well as between-participants (Study 2). Appraisals also had expected associations with specific coping behaviors (Study 1), while challenge appraisal was associated with task performance (Study 3). Conclusions: The scales of challenge and hindrance appraisals were psychometrically sound across multiple contexts. Results highlight the merit of considering appraisal in stress research.

Cue Utilization and Broad Indicators of Workplace Expertise

Where occupational performance outcomes are difficult to measure, there is a tendency to associate expertise with years of experience and/or previous occupational position. Although useful, these indicators represent composite constructs that embody a number of different variables, only some of which may be strongly associated with the transition to expertise. In identifying an alternative measure of expertise, it is necessary to consider the cognitive processes associated with expert performance, in particular, the role of cue utilization. The present study, conducted in the context of software engineering, was designed to test the relationship between cue utilization and self, peer, and error management indicators of expertise. The results indicated that participants who exhibited relatively higher levels of cue utilization were significantly more likely to self-report engaging in behaviors associated with expert decision making, to be nominated as an expert by their peers, and to demonstrate superior error management when developing solutions to development problems.

The Role of Social Cue Utilization and Closing-the-Loop Communication in the Performance of Ad Hoc Dyads:

Objective: To examine whether social cue utilization impacts the performance of ad hoc dyads through its relationship with closing the loop, a communication process whereby team members respond more frequently to initiating statements made by others. Background: There lacks unequivocal experimental evidence for any single cognitive-based process that might predict the performance of ad hoc teams. Method: Using a quasi-experimental design, 80 participants were classified into 40 dyads based on their levels of social cue utilization and attempted a team problem-solving task. A serial mediation model revealed an indirect effect of social cue utilization on the performance of ad hoc dyads through closing the loop. Results: Analyses indicated that social cue utilization impacts on the performance of ad hoc dyads independently of nonverbal reasoning ability and emotional intelligence. Further, the level of social cue utilization within dyads exhibits a positive indirect impact on the performance of ad hoc dyads through closing the loop. Conclusion: Ad hoc dyads with higher levels of social cue utilization engaged in a greater frequency of closing-the-loop statements and showed better subsequent performance on a problem-solving task in comparison to dyads with lower levels of social cue utilization. Application: Potential applications include the optimization of ad hoc team composition within high reliability environments like aviation and power control as well as improving training interventions with a specific mechanism for improving the performance of ad hoc teams.

The role of cues in expert project manager sensemaking

Sensemaking forms the foundation of expertise as it comprises the initial stage of information processing that influences judgement and decision-making. Two related studies were undertaken to investigate the role of cues in the context of expert project management. First, a qualitative study was conducted using the critical incident technique and involving nine project managers who had successfully delivered projects. The data were analysed by identifying the critical incidents and the associated cues that were used as the basis of sensemaking in project-related situations. These cues converged into three categories: feedback, context cues and tacit knowledge. The second study examined the construct validity of the cues that emerged in Study 1 using a cue utilization scale that was administered through an online survey. There were 23 experienced project managers and 78 naïve participants who participated in the study. Differences in patterns of cue utilization were evident between the two cohorts based on the perceived levels of project complexity and project phases. The research outcomes offer empirical support for the relationship between cues and sensemaking in project management, and provide a basis for further research into the acquisition of sensemaking skills and the development of cue-based training initiatives to facilitate the progression towards expert project management.