Benjamin J. Knox

Towards a Cognitive Agility Index: The Role of Metacognition in Human Computer Interaction

Research on human factors in the cyber domain is lacking. Metacognitive awareness and regulation have been shown to be important factors in performance, but research integrating metacognitive strategies in socio-technical systems is lacking. This study aims to investigate metacognition as a potential index of evaluating individual cognitive performance in cyberspace operations. Cyber military cadets were tested during a cyber-exercise to see how metacognitive awareness and regulation influenced performance in the Hybrid Space conceptual framework. Findings suggest that metacognitive strategies could explain Hybrid Space performance outcomes and support the development of a cognitive agility index for cyber operators. Future research and training programs for cyber officers should incorporate metacognition as measurement outcomes and in training to help index development and performance.

Socio-technical communication: The hybrid space and the OLB model for science-based cyber education

ABSTRACT Lessons from safety-critical sociotechnical systems, such as aviation and acute medical care, demonstrate the importance of the human factor and highlight the crucial role of efficient communication between human agents. Although a large proportion of fatal incidents in aviation have been linked to failures in communication, cognitive engineering provides the theoretical framework to mitigate risks and increase performance in sociotechnical systems not only in the civil sector, but also in the military domain. Conducting cyber operations in multidomain battles presents new challenges for military training and education as the increased importance of psychological factors such as metacognitive skills and perspective-taking both in lower and higher ranking staff, becomes more apparent. The Hybrid Space framework (Jøsok et al., 2016) provides a blueprint for describing the cognitive and behavioral constraints for maneuvering between socio-technical and cyber-physical systems whilst cooperating, coordinating or competing with accompanying cognitive styles in the chain of command. We apply the Hybrid Space framework to communicative challenges in the military cyber domain and suggest a three-phase Orienting, Locating, Bridging model for safe and efficient communication between partners. Based on the educational principles of the Norwegian Defence Cyber Academy, we discuss the required skill-sets and knowledge in which cyber officer cadets are trained and taught early in their education, and how these refer to the theoretical framework of the Hybrid Space and the key principles of communication as defined in cognitive engineering.

Macrocognition Applied to the Hybrid Space: Team Environment, Functions and Processes in Cyber Operations

As cyber is increasingly integrated into military operations, conducting military cyber operations requires the effective coordination of teams. This interdisciplinary contribution discusses teams working in, and in relation to the cyber domain as a part of a larger socio-technical system, and the need for a better understanding of the human factors that contribute to individual and team performance in such settings. To extend an existing macrocognitive model [19] describing functions and processes into a conceptual framework that maps cognitive processes along cyber-physical and tactical-strategic dimensions (the Hybrid Space; [4]) to gain a better understanding of environmental complexity, and how to operate effectively in a cyber team context. Current experience from conducting cyber network defence exercises at the Norwegian Defence Cyber Academy and implications for future education and training are discussed.

How Coping Strategies Influence Cyber Task Performance in the Hybrid Space

This paper combines two previous studies concerning how the applied use of specified coping strategies can improve performance, and, how knowledge of task importance affect performance in cyber cognitive tasks. The participants self-evaluated their application of coping strategies after a period of time for reflection having completed the cyber cognitive tasks. The results show how applying ‘Control’ and drawing on ‘Self-confidence and belief in oneself’ can influence performance in cyber cognitive tasks amongst cyber officer cadets.

Exploring the Hybrid Space Theoretical Framework Applying Cognitive Science in Military Cyberspace Operations

Operations in cyberspace are enabled by a digitized battlefield. The ability to control operations in cyberspace has become a central goal for defence forces. As a result, terms like cyber power, cyberspace operations and cyber deterrence have begun to emerge in military literature in an effort to describe and highlight the importance of related activities. Future military personnel, in all branches, will encounter the raised complexity of joint military operations with cyber as the key enabler. The constant change and complexity raises the demands for the structure and content of education and training. This interdisciplinary contribution discusses the need for a better understanding of the relationships between cyberspace and the physical domain, the cognitive challenges this represents, and proposes a theoretical framework - the Hybrid Space - allowing for the application of psychological concepts in assessment, training and action.

Factors to affect improvement in cyber officer performance

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate how motivation – gained by understanding the purpose of specific cyber-oriented tasks – coping strategies and level of physical conditioning can affect cognitive abilities amongst cyber officer cadets. Design/methodology/approach Two cognitive tests (2014 and 2015) and coping strategy questionnaires (2015) were conducted during an annual military exercise involving increased levels of stress and hardship (physical and cognitive) over a sustained two-week period. Findings Motivation – gained by task explanations – and the conscious use of the “control” strategy can have a positive effect on individual performance in cyber tasks. Research limitations/implications The participants were all young adults with higher-than-average levels of physical fitness. From the outset, all participants were highly motivated and disciplined having entered cyber officer training after successfully completing a thorough selection process. Practical implications The results of this study are to be better implemented to the activities at the military academy. Social implications The closest civilian occupational equivalent is a computer network operations (CNO)-operator. The findings could be implemented into their daily work routines. Originality/value Cognitive tests used in this study are based on recognized general cognitive tests. However, modifications were made to suit the cyber task context, making the test original. The cyber officer is a contemporary concept currently lacking research.

Interoceptive sensitivity as a proxy for emotional intensity and its relationship with perseverative cognition

Background Technical advancement in military cyber defense poses increased cognitive demands on cyber officers. In the cyber domain, the influence of emotion on decision-making is rarely investigated. The purpose of this study was to assess psychophysiological correlation with perseverative cognitions during emotionally intensive/stressful situations in cyber military personnel. In line with parallel research on clinical samples high on perseverative cognition, we expected a decreased interoceptive sensitivity in officers with high levels of perseverative cognition. Method We investigated this association in a sample of 27 cyber officer cadets. Results Contrary to our hypothesis, there was no relationship between the factors. Discussion Cyber officers might display characteristics not otherwise found in general populations. The cyber domain may lead to a selection process that attracts different profiles of cognitive and emotional processing.

Supporting the Human in Cyber Defence

Incident detection is not merely the result of a technological process, but the output of a socio-technical system where the human has an important part to play. In this paper we focus on the human role within a socio-technically defined incident detection context by discussing the case of the Norwegian Cyber Defence approach. We show that the human has an important part in the process, not only by owning technical skills but also high-level cognitive skills that help critical thinking, decision-making and communication. We further summarize the results of our previous research and discuss how it can be applied, in order to improve educational content of an incident detection team. We strongly believe that the topics discussed in this paper, when implemented and applied, will help transforming the weakest link - the human - to the strongest defence.

Development and Application of the Hybrid Space App for Measuring Cognitive Focus in Hybrid Contexts

Insight into skills that can support agile cognitive maneuver in complex digitized contexts is necessary for improved understanding of human behaviour in contemporary society. A more digitally enabled professional life, encompassing new tools to augment reality, requires we seek further knowledge concerning which competencies make humans operate more efficiently. The Hybrid Space app was developed for collecting and analysing individual cognitive focus when engaging in hybrid contexts. This paper includes an introduction to how cognitive focus can be operationalized in The Hybrid Space conceptual framework for research purposes. It explains the development of the data collection software, The Hybrid Space app, and presents examples of data collected during a four-day cyber defence exercise at the Norwegian Cyber Defence Academy. The Hybrid Space app demonstrated ease of use for real-time analysis opportunities, as well as a reliable data collection, computation and visualization tool.

The moderating influence of self-efficacy on interoceptive ability and counterintuitive decision making in officer cadets

Abstract The rapid technical progress in cyber threats and cyber security poses increased cognitive demands on cyber officers. The macrocognitive demand characteristics placed on the cyber officers exceed those in most common military contexts and are new in nature. Research on decision-making competence within the cyber domain is needed to identify strategies and give a better understanding of how these strategies can have consequences depending on task characteristics. Belief in one’s capabilities to handle a certain task has been shown to be a key factor for cognitive performance. This study investigated how high self-efficacy negatively moderated intuitive decision-making tendencies on performance when facing a problem that required counterintuitive strategies. Twenty-seven cyber officer cadets from the Norwegian Defence Cyber Academy participated in an experiment assessing self-efficacy, interoceptive sensitivity, and decision-making. Participants with high situational self-efficacy generally performed better, but this relationship was moderated by interoceptive sensitivity. The findings suggest potential detrimental effects of intuitive decision-making tendencies in combination with high self-efficacy. Implications for training and feedback structures in cyber defense are discussed.