Benjamin Metz

Comparative genome sequence analysis underscores mycoparasitism as the ancestral life style of Trichoderma

BackgroundMycoparasitism, a lifestyle where one fungus is parasitic on another fungus, has special relevance when the prey is a plant pathogen, providing a strategy for biological control of pests for plant protection. Probably, the most studied biocontrol agents are species of the genus Hypocrea/Trichoderma.ResultsHere we report an analysis of the genome sequences of the two biocontrol species Trichoderma atroviride (teleomorph Hypocrea atroviridis) and Trichoderma virens (formerly Gliocladium virens, teleomorph Hypocrea virens), and a comparison with Trichoderma reesei (teleomorph Hypocrea jecorina). These three Trichoderma species display a remarkable conservation of gene order (78 to 96%), and a lack of active mobile elements probably due to repeat-induced point mutation. Several gene families are expanded in the two mycoparasitic species relative to T. reesei or other ascomycetes, and are overrepresented in non-syntenic genome regions. A phylogenetic analysis shows that T. reesei and T. virens are derived relative to T. atroviride. The mycoparasitism-specific genes thus arose in a common Trichoderma ancestor but were subsequently lost in T. reesei.ConclusionsThe data offer a better understanding of mycoparasitism, and thus enforce the development of improved biocontrol strains for efficient and environmentally friendly protection of plants.

Fungal arabinan and L-arabinose metabolism

Abstractl-Arabinose is the second most abundant pentose beside d-xylose and is found in the plant polysaccharides, hemicellulose and pectin. The need to find renewable carbon and energy sources has accelerated research to investigate the potential of l-arabinose for the development and production of biofuels and other bioproducts. Fungi produce a number of extracellular arabinanases, including α-l-arabinofuranosidases and endo-arabinanases, to specifically release l-arabinose from the plant polymers. Following uptake of l-arabinose, its intracellular catabolism follows a four-step alternating reduction and oxidation path, which is concluded by a phosphorylation, resulting in d-xylulose 5-phosphate, an intermediate of the pentose phosphate pathway. The genes and encoding enzymes l-arabinose reductase, l-arabinitol dehydrogenase, l-xylulose reductase, xylitol dehydrogenase, and xylulokinase of this pathway were mainly characterized in the two biotechnological important fungi Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma reesei. Analysis of the components of the l-arabinose pathway revealed a number of specific adaptations in the enzymatic and regulatory machinery towards the utilization of l-arabinose. Further genetic and biochemical analysis provided evidence that l-arabinose and the interconnected d-xylose pathway are also involved in the oxidoreductive degradation of the hexose d-galactose.

Molecular Regulation of Arabinan and l-Arabinose Metabolism in Hypocrea jecorina (Trichoderma reesei)

ABSTRACT Hypocrea jecorina (anamorph: Trichoderma reesei) can grow on plant arabinans by the aid of secreted arabinan-degrading enzymes. This growth on arabinan and its degradation product l-arabinose requires the operation of the aldose reductase XYL1 and the l-arabinitol dehydrogenase LAD1. Growth on arabinan and l-arabinose is also severely affected in a strain deficient in the general cellulase and hemicellulase regulator XYR1, but this impairment can be overcome by constitutive expression of the xyl1 encoding the aldose reductase. An inspection of the genome of H. jecorina reveals four genes capable of degrading arabinan, i.e., the α-l-arabinofuranosidase encoding genes abf1, abf2, and abf3 and also bxl1, which encodes a β-xylosidase with a separate α-l-arabinofuranosidase domain and activity but no endo-arabinanase. Transcriptional analysis reveals that in the parent strain QM9414 the expression of all of these genes is induced by l-arabinose and to a lesser extent by l-arabinitol and absent on d-glucose. Induction by l-arabinitol, however, is strongly enhanced in a Δlad1 strain lacking l-arabinitol dehydrogenase activity and severely impaired in an aldose reductase (Δxyl1) strain, suggesting a cross talk between l-arabinitol and the aldose reductase XYL1 in an α-l-arabinofuranosidase gene expression. Strains bearing a knockout in the cellulase regulator xyr1 do not show any induction of abf2 and bxl1, and this phenotype cannot be reverted by constitutive expression of xyl1. The loss of function of xyr1 has also a slight effect on the expression of abf1 and abf3. We conclude that the expression of the four α-l-arabinofuranosidases of H. jecorina for growth on arabinan requires an early pathway intermediate (l-arabinitol or l-arabinose), the first enzyme of the pathway XYL1, and in the case of abf2 and bxl1 also the function of the cellulase regulator XYR1.

Expression of Biomass-Degrading Enzymes Is a Major Event during Conidium Development in Trichoderma reesei

ABSTRACT The conidium plays a critical role in the life cycle of many filamentous fungi, being the primary means for survival under unfavorable conditions. To investigate the transcriptional changes taking place during the transition from growing hyphae to conidia in Trichoderma reesei, microarray experiments were performed. A total of 900 distinct genes were classified as differentially expressed, relative to their expression at time zero of conidiation, at least at one of the time points analyzed. The main functional categories (FunCat) overrepresented among the upregulated genes were those involving solute transport, metabolism, transcriptional regulation, secondary metabolite synthesis, lipases, proteases, and, particularly, cellulases and hemicellulases. Categories overrepresented among the downregulated genes were especially those associated with ribosomal and mitochondrial functions. The upregulation of cellulase and hemicellulase genes was dependent on the function of the positive transcriptional regulator XYR1, but XYR1 exerted no influence on conidiation itself. At least 20% of the significantly regulated genes were nonrandomly distributed within the T. reesei genome, suggesting an epigenetic component in the regulation of conidiation. The significant upregulation of cellulases and hemicellulases during this process, and thus cellulase and hemicellulase content in the spores of T. reesei, contributes to the hypothesis that the ability to hydrolyze plant biomass is a major trait of this fungus enabling it to break dormancy and reinitiate vegetative growth after a period of facing unfavorable conditions.

Xylanase Gene Transcription in Trichoderma reesei Is Triggered by Different Inducers Representing Different Hemicellulosic Pentose Polymers

ABSTRACT The ascomycete Trichoderma reesei is a paradigm for the regulation and production of plant cell wall-degrading enzymes, including xylanases. Four xylanases, including XYN1 and XYN2 of glycosyl hydrolase family 11 (GH11), the GH10 XYN3, and the GH30 XYN4, were already described. By genome mining, we identified a fifth xylanase, XYN5, belonging to GH11. Transcriptional analysis reveals that the expression of all xylanases but xyn3 is induced by d-xylose, dependent on the cellulase and xylanase regulator XYR1 and negatively regulated by the carbon catabolite repressor CRE1. Impairment of d-xylose catabolism at the d-xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase step strongly enhanced induction by d-xylose. Knockout of the l-xylulose reductase-encoding gene lxr3, which connects the d-xylose and l-arabinose catabolic pathways, had no effect on xylanase induction. Besides the induction by d-xylose, the T. reesei xylanases were also induced by l-arabinose, and this induction was also enhanced in knockout mutants in l-arabinose reductase (xyl1), l-arabitol dehydrogenase (lad1), and l-xylulose reductase (lxr3). Induction by l-arabinose was also XYR1 dependent. Analysis of intracellular polyols revealed accumulation of xylitol in all strains only during incubation with d-xylose and accumulation of l-arabitol only during incubation with l-arabinose. Induction by l-arabinose could be further stimulated by addition of d-xylose. We conclude that the expression of the T. reesei xylanases can be induced by both d-xylose and l-arabinose, but independently of each other and by using different inducing metabolites.

The Hypocrea jecorina (syn. Trichoderma reesei) lxr1 gene encodes a d-mannitol dehydrogenase and is not involved in l-arabinose catabolism

The Hypocrea jecorina LXR1 was described as the first fungal l‐xylulose reductase responsible for NADPH dependent reduction of l‐xylulose to xylitol in l‐arabinose catabolism. Phylogenetic analysis now reveals that LXR1 forms a clade with fungal d‐mannitol 2‐dehydrogenases. Lxr1 and the orthologous Aspergillus niger mtdA are not induced by l‐arabinose but expressed at low levels during growth on different carbon sources. Deletion of lxr1 does not affect growth on l‐arabinose and l‐xylulose reductase activity remains unaltered whereas d‐mannitol 2‐dehydrogenase activities are reduced. We conclude that LXR1 is a d‐mannitol 2‐dehydrogenase and that a true LXR1 is still awaiting discovery.

l-xylo-3-Hexulose Reductase Is the Missing Link in the Oxidoreductive Pathway for d-Galactose Catabolism in Filamentous Fungi

Background: There is an oxidoreductive d-galactose pathway in filamentous fungi. Results: We identified an l-xylo-3-hexulose reductase that produces d-sorbitol and that is part of this pathway. Conclusion: This l-xylo-3-hexulose reductase is the missing link in the oxidoreductive d-galactose pathway. Significance: The alternative pathway for d-galactose catabolism in filamentous fungi is elucidated. In addition to the well established Leloir pathway for the catabolism of d-galactose in fungi, the oxidoreductive pathway has been recently identified. In this oxidoreductive pathway, d-galactose is converted via a series of NADPH-dependent reductions and NAD+-dependent oxidations into d-fructose. The pathway intermediates include galactitol, l-xylo-3-hexulose, and d-sorbitol. This study identified the missing link in the pathway, the l-xylo-3-hexulose reductase that catalyzes the conversion of l-xylo-3-hexulose to d-sorbitol. In Trichoderma reesei (Hypocrea jecorina) and Aspergillus niger, we identified the genes lxr4 and xhrA, respectively, that encode the l-xylo-3-hexulose reductases. The deletion of these genes resulted in no growth on galactitol and in reduced growth on d-galactose. The LXR4 was heterologously expressed, and the purified protein showed high specificity for l-xylo-3-hexulose with a Km = 2.0 ± 0.5 mm and a Vmax = 5.5 ± 1.0 units/mg. We also confirmed that the product of the LXR4 reaction is d-sorbitol.

d-Galactose uptake is nonfunctional in the conidiospores of Aspergillus niger

The majority of black Aspergilli (Aspergillus section Nigri), including Aspergillus niger, as well as many other Ascomycetes fail to germinate on d-galactose as a sole carbon source. Here, we provide evidence that the ability of A. niger to transport D-galactose is growth stage dependent, being absent in the conidiospores but present in the mycelia. Despite earlier claims, we could identify galactokinase activity in growing cells and all genes of the Leloir pathway (responsible for channelling D-galactose into the EMP pathway) are well induced on D-galactose (and also on lactose, D-xylose and L-arabinose) in the mycelial stage. Expression of all Leloir pathway genes was also detectable in conidiospores, although galE (encoding a galactokinase) and galD (encoding a galactose-1-phosphate uridylyl transferase) were expressed poorly. These results suggest that the D-galactose-negative phenotype of A. niger conidiospores may be due to the lack of inducer uptake.

A Novel L‑Xylulose Reductase Essential for L‑Arabinose Catabolism in Trichoderma reesei

l-Xylulose reductases belong to the superfamily of short chain dehydrogenases and reductases (SDRs) and catalyze the NAD(P)H-dependent reduction of l-xylulose to xylitol in l-arabinose and glucuronic acid catabolism. Here we report the identification of a novel l-xylulose reductase LXR3 in the fungus Trichoderma reesei by a bioinformatic approach in combination with a functional analysis. LXR3, a 31 kDa protein, catalyzes the reduction of l-xylulose to xylitol via NADPH and is also able to convert d-xylulose, d-ribulose, l-sorbose, and d-fructose to their corresponding polyols. Transcription of lxr3 is specifically induced by l-arabinose and l-arabitol. Deletion of lxr3 affects growth on l-arabinose and l-arabitol and reduces total NADPH-dependent LXR activity in cell free extracts. A phylogenetic analysis of known l-xylulose reductases shows that LXR3 is phylogenetically different from the Aspergillus nigerl-xylulose reductase LxrA and, moreover, that all identified true l-xylulose reductases belong to different clades within the superfamily of SDRs. This indicates that the enzymes responsible for the reduction of l-xylulose in l-arabinose and glucuronic acid catabolic pathways have evolved independently and that even the fungal LXRs of the l-arabinose catabolic pathway have evolved in different clades of the superfamily of SDRs.

L-Methionine repressible promoters for tuneable gene expression in Trichoderma reesei.

BackgroundTrichoderma reesei is the main producer of lignocellulolytic enzymes that are required for plant biomass hydrolysis in the biorefinery industry. Although the molecular toolbox for T. reesei is already well developed, repressible promoters for strain engineering and functional genomics studies are still lacking. One such promoter that is widely employed for yeasts is that of the l-methionine repressible MET3 gene, encoding ATP sulphurylase.ResultsWe show that the MET3 system can only be applied for T. reesei when the cellulase inducing carbon source lactose is used but not when wheat straw, a relevant lignocellulosic substrate for enzyme production, is employed. We therefore performed a transcriptomic screen for genes that are l-methionine repressible in a wheat straw culture. This analysis retrieved 50 differentially regulated genes of which 33 were downregulated. Among these, genes encoding transport proteins as well as iron containing DszA like monooxygenases and TauD like dioxygenases were strongly overrepresented. We show that the promoter region of one of these dioxygenases can be used for the strongly repressible expression of the Aspergillus niger sucA encoded extracellular invertase in T. reesei wheat straw cultures. This system is also portable to other carbon sources including d-glucose and glycerol as demonstrated by the repressible expression of the Escherichia coli lacZ encoded ß-galactosidase in T. reesei.ConclusionWe describe a novel, versatile set of promoters for T. reesei that can be used to drive recombinant gene expression in wheat straw cultures at different expression strengths and in an l-methionine repressible manner. The dioxygenase promoter that we studied in detail is furthermore compatible with different carbon sources and therefore applicable for manipulating protein production as well as functional genomics with T. reesei.