Bennard van Ravenzwaay

Green Toxicology: a strategy for sustainable chemical and material development

Green Toxicology refers to the application of predictive toxicology in the sustainable development and production of new less harmful materials and chemicals, subsequently reducing waste and exposure. Built upon the foundation of “Green Chemistry” and “Green Engineering”, “Green Toxicology” aims to shape future manufacturing processes and safe synthesis of chemicals in terms of environmental and human health impacts. Being an integral part of Green Chemistry, the principles of Green Toxicology amplify the role of health-related aspects for the benefit of consumers and the environment, in addition to being economical for manufacturing companies. Due to the costly development and preparation of new materials and chemicals for market entry, it is no longer practical to ignore the safety and environmental status of new products during product development stages. However, this is only possible if toxicologists and chemists work together early on in the development of materials and chemicals to utilize safe design strategies and innovative in vitro and in silico tools. This paper discusses some of the most relevant aspects, advances and limitations of the emergence of Green Toxicology from the perspective of different industry and research groups. The integration of new testing methods and strategies in product development, testing and regulation stages are presented with examples of the application of in silico, omics and in vitro methods. Other tools for Green Toxicology, including the reduction of animal testing, alternative test methods, and read-across approaches are also discussed.

Development of a Short-Term Inhalation Test in the Rat Using Nano-Titanium Dioxide as a Model Substance

Evidence suggests that short-term inhalation studies may provide comparable prediction of respiratory tract toxicity to 90-day studies, presenting the opportunity to save time and resources in screening inhalation toxicity of test substances. The aim of this study was to develop a short-term inhalation test that could be employed to provide early evidence on respiratory tract effects which might occur from long-term exposure to aerosols of nano-materials. Male Wistar rats were exposed to aerosols of 0 (control), 2, 10 and 50 mg/m3 nano-titanium dioxide (TiO2) by inhalation for 6 h/day for 5 days. Necropsies were performed either immediately after the last exposure or after 3 and 16 days post exposure (study days 5, 8 and 21, respectively). Treatment with nano-TiO2 resulted in morphological changes in the lung, with 50 mg/m3 nano-TiO2 producing an increase in lung weight. Lung inflammation was associated with dose-dependent increases in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) total cell and neutrophil counts, total protein content, enzyme activities and levels of a number of cell mediators. No indications of systemic effects could be found by measurement of appropriate clinical pathology parameters. Cell replication (determined by incorporation of 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine) was increased at all nano-TiO2 dose levels in large/medium bronchi and terminal bronchioles. The effects on the parameters measured were most prominent either on study day 5 or 8, with some endpoints returning to control levels by day 21. Overall, the pulmonary effects of nano-TiO2 observed in this short-term study were comparable to those previously reported in subchronic inhalation studies.

Putting the parts together: Combining in vitro methods to test for skin sensitizing potentials

Allergic contact dermatitis is a common skin disease and is elicited by repeated skin contact with an allergen. In the regulatory context, currently only data from animal experiments are acceptable to assess the skin sensitizing potential of substances. Animal welfare and EU Cosmetic Directive/Regulation call for the implementation of animal-free alternatives for safety assessments. The mechanisms that trigger skin sensitization are complex and various steps are involved. Therefore, a single in vitro method may not be able to accurately assess this endpoint. Non-animal methods are being developed and validated and can be used for testing strategies that ensure a reliable prediction of skin sensitization potentials. In this study, the predictivities of four in vitro assays, one in chemico and one in silico method addressing three different steps in the development of skin sensitization were assessed using 54 test substances of known sensitizing potential. The predictivity of single tests and combinations of these assays were compared. These data were used to develop an in vitro testing scheme and prediction model for the detection of skin sensitizers based on protein reactivity, activation of the Keap-1/Nrf2 signaling pathway and dendritic cell activation.

Metabolomics in toxicology and preclinical research.

Metabolomics, the comprehensive analysis of metabolites in a biological system, provides detailed information about the biochemical/physiological status of a biological system, and about the changes caused by chemicals. Metabolomics analysis is used in many fields, ranging from the analysis of the physiological status of genetically modified organisms in safety science to the evaluation of human health conditions. In toxicology, metabolomics is the -omics discipline that is most closely related to classical knowledge of disturbed biochemical pathways. It allows rapid identification of the potential targets of a hazardous compound. It can give information on target organs and often can help to improve our understanding regarding the mode-of-action of a given compound. Such insights aid the discovery of biomarkers that either indicate pathophysiological conditions or help the monitoring of the efficacy of drug therapies. The first toxicological applications of metabolomics were for mechanistic research, but different ways to use the technology in a regulatory context are being explored. Ideally, further progress in that direction will position the metabolomics approach to address the challenges of toxicology of the 21st century. To address these issues, scientists from academia, industry, and regulatory bodies came together in a workshop to discuss the current status of applied metabolomics and its potential in the safety assessment of compounds. We report here on the conclusions of three working groups addressing questions regarding 1) metabolomics for in vitro studies 2) the appropriate use of metabolomics in systems toxicology, and 3) use of metabolomics in a regulatory context.

Vinclozolin—The lack of a transgenerational effect after oral maternal exposure during organogenesis

The purpose of the study was to investigate a possible transgenerational effect of the fungicide vinclozolin on the male reproductive system following oral exposure since this effect was reported by Anway et al. [Anway MD, Cupp AS, Uzumcu M, Skinner MK. Epigenetic transgenerational actions of endocrine disruptors and male fertility. Science 2005;308(5727 (June 3)):1466-9] after intraperitoneal administration. Pregnant Wistar rats were dosed by oral gavage with vinclozolin 0, 4 or 100mg/(kg bw day) on days 6-15 post coitum (p.c.). F1 male offspring was mated with untreated females to produce F2, which were then similarly mated to produce F3 offspring. F0 maternal treatment had no effect on mating and fertility indices or male offspring sexual development, mean sperm parameters, or histopathology of the sexual organs in F1, F2 or F3 males (at age 127-134 days). Apoptotic germ cell counts were statistically significantly lower in F1, F2 and F3 generations, however, control values showed a pronounced variance over time. Also, as anti-androgenic compounds are more likely to induce the opposite effect (increased apoptosis), this observation is not considered to be treatment related. Consequently, spermatogenesis was not affected by vinclozolin exposure in utero. As vinclozolin has been shown to induce clear anti-androgenic effects in offspring following treatment with 100mg/(kg bw day) during entire gestation, the lack of effects in this study indicates that the window of sensitivity for anti-androgenic effects is from days 16-20 p.c. No transgenerational effect on the male reproductive system was found. The NOAEL was >100mg/(kg bw day) for fertility and reproductive performance, for systemic parental and developmental toxicity in F1, F2 and F3 males.

Application of short-term inhalation studies to assess the inhalation toxicity of nanomaterials

BackgroundA standard short-term inhalation study (STIS) was applied for hazard assessment of 13 metal oxide nanomaterials and micron-scale zinc oxide.MethodsRats were exposed to test material aerosols (ranging from 0.5 to 50 mg/m3) for five consecutive days with 14- or 21-day post-exposure observation. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and histopathological sections of the entire respiratory tract were examined. Pulmonary deposition and clearance and test material translocation into extra-pulmonary organs were assessed.ResultsInhaled nanomaterials were found in the lung, in alveolar macrophages, and in the draining lymph nodes. Polyacrylate-coated silica was also found in the spleen, and both zinc oxides elicited olfactory epithelium necrosis. None of the other nanomaterials was recorded in extra-pulmonary organs. Eight nanomaterials did not elicit pulmonary effects, and their no observed adverse effect concentrations (NOAECs) were at least 10 mg/m3. Five materials (coated nano-TiO2, both ZnO, both CeO2) evoked concentration-dependent transient pulmonary inflammation. Most effects were at least partially reversible during the post-exposure period.Based on the NOAECs that were derived from quantitative parameters, with BALF polymorphonuclear (PMN) neutrophil counts and total protein concentration being most sensitive, or from the severity of histopathological findings, the materials were ranked by increasing toxic potency into 3 grades: lower toxic potency: BaSO4; SiO2.acrylate (by local NOAEC); SiO2.PEG; SiO2.phosphate; SiO2.amino; nano-ZrO2; ZrO2.TODA; ZrO2.acrylate; medium toxic potency: SiO2.naked; higher toxic potency: coated nano-TiO2; nano-CeO2; Al-doped nano-CeO2; micron-scale ZnO; coated nano-ZnO (and SiO2.acrylate by systemic no observed effect concentration (NOEC)).ConclusionThe STIS revealed the type of effects of 13 nanomaterials, and micron-scale ZnO, information on their toxic potency, and the location and reversibility of effects. Assessment of lung burden and material translocation provided preliminary biokinetic information. Based upon the study results, the STIS protocol was re-assessed and preliminary suggestions regarding the grouping of nanomaterials for safety assessment were spelled out.

Intralaboratory validation of four in vitro assays for the prediction of the skin sensitizing potential of chemicals.

Allergic contact dermatitis is induced by repeated skin contact with an allergen. Assessment of the skin sensitizing potential of chemicals, agrochemicals, and especially cosmetic ingredients is currently performed with the use of animals. Animal welfare and EU legislation demand animal-free alternatives reflected in a testing and marketing ban for cosmetic ingredients beginning in 2013. The underlying mechanisms of induction and elicitation of skin sensitization are complex and a chemical needs to comply several properties being skin sensitizing. To account for the multitude of events in the induction of skin sensitization an in vitro test system will consist of a battery of various tests. Currently, we performed intralaboratory validations of four assays addressing three different events during induction of skin sensitization. (1) The Direct Peptide Reactivity Assay (DPRA) according to Gerberick and co-workers (Gerberick et al., 2004) using synthetic peptides and HPLC analysis. (2) Two dendritic cell activation assays based on the dendritic cell like cell lines U-937 and THP-1 and flow cytometric detection of the maturation markers CD54 and/or CD86 (Ashikaga et al., 2006; Python et al., 2007; Sakaguchi et al., 2006). (3) Antioxidant response element (ARE)-dependent gene activity in a HaCaT reporter gene cell line (Emter et al., 2010). We present the results of our intralaboratory validation of these assays with 23 substances of known sensitizing potential. The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the individual tests were obtained by comparison to human epidemiological data as well as to data from animal tests such as the local lymph node assay.

In vivo-in vitro comparison of acute respiratory tract toxicity using human 3D airway epithelial models and human A549 and murine 3T3 monolayer cell systems.

The usefulness of in vitro systems to predict acute inhalation toxicity was investigated. Nineteen substances were tested in three-dimensional human airway epithelial models, EpiAirway™ and MucilAir™, and in A549 and 3T3 monolayer cell cultures. IC(50) values were compared to rat four-hour LC(50) values classified according to EPA and GHS hazard categories. Best results were achieved with a prediction model distinguishing toxic from non-toxic substances, with satisfactory specificities and sensitivities. Using a self-made four-level prediction model to classify substances into four in vitro hazard categories, in vivo-in vitro concordance was mediocre, but could be improved by excluding substances causing pulmonary edema and emphysema in vivo. None of the test systems was outstanding, and there was no evidence that tissue or monolayer systems using respiratory tract cells provide an added value. However, the test systems only reflected bronchiole epithelia and alveolar cells and investigated cytotoxicity. Effects occurring in other cells by other mechanisms could not be recognised. Further work should optimise test protocols and expand the set of substances tested to define applicability domains. In vivo respiratory toxicity data for in vitro comparisons should distinguish different modes of action, and their relevance for human health effects should be ensured.

Computer models versus reality: how well do in silico models currently predict the sensitization potential of a substance.

National legislations for the assessment of the skin sensitization potential of chemicals are increasingly based on the globally harmonized system (GHS). In this study, experimental data on 55 non-sensitizing and 45 sensitizing chemicals were evaluated according to GHS criteria and used to test the performance of computer (in silico) models for the prediction of skin sensitization. Statistic models (Vega, Case Ultra, TOPKAT), mechanistic models (Toxtree, OECD (Q)SAR toolbox, DEREK) or a hybrid model (TIMES-SS) were evaluated. Between three and nine of the substances evaluated were found in the individual training sets of various models. Mechanism based models performed better than statistical models and gave better predictivities depending on the stringency of the domain definition. Best performance was achieved by TIMES-SS, with a perfect prediction, whereby only 16% of the substances were within its reliability domain. Some models offer modules for potency; however predictions did not correlate well with the GHS sensitization subcategory derived from the experimental data. In conclusion, although mechanistic models can be used to a certain degree under well-defined conditions, at the present, the in silico models are not sufficiently accurate for broad application to predict skin sensitization potentials.

Applicability of rat precision-cut lung slices in evaluating nanomaterial cytotoxicity, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammation

The applicability of rat precision-cut lung slices (PCLuS) in detecting nanomaterial (NM) toxicity to the respiratory tract was investigated evaluating sixteen OECD reference NMs (TiO₂, ZnO, CeO₂, SiO₂, Ag, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs)). Upon 24-hour test substance exposure, the PCLuS system was able to detect early events of NM toxicity: total protein, reduction in mitochondrial activity, caspase-3/-7 activation, glutathione depletion/increase, cytokine induction, and histopathological evaluation. Ion shedding NMS (ZnO and Ag) induced severe tissue destruction detected by the loss of total protein. Two anatase TiO₂ NMs, CeO₂ NMs, and two MWCNT caused significant (determined by trend analysis) cytotoxicity in the WST-1 assay. At non-cytotoxic concentrations, different TiO₂ NMs and one MWCNT increased GSH levels, presumably a defense response to reactive oxygen species, and these substances further induced a variety of cytokines. One of the SiO₂ NMs increased caspase-3/-7 activities at non-cytotoxic levels, and one rutile TiO₂ only induced cytokines. Investigating these effects is, however, not sufficient to predict apical effects found in vivo. Reproducibility of test substance measurements was not fully satisfactory, especially in the GSH and cytokine assays. Effects were frequently observed in negative controls pointing to tissue slice vulnerability even though prepared and handled with utmost care. Comparisons of the effects observed in the PCLuS to in vivo effects reveal some concordances for the metal oxide NMs, but less so for the MWCNT. The highest effective dosages, however, exceeded those reported for rat short-term inhalation studies. To become applicable for NM testing, the PCLuS system requires test protocol optimization.