Bernard E. Whitley

Sex Differences in Attitudes Toward Homosexual Persons, Behaviors, and Civil Rights A Meta-Analysis

Meta-analytic techniques were used to compare mens and womens attitudes toward homosexual persons, homosexual behaviors, and gay peoples civil rights. As expected, size of sex differences varied across these categories. Men were more negative than women toward homosexual persons and homosexual behavior, but the sexes viewed gay civil rights similarly. Mens attitudes toward homosexual persons were particularly negative when the person being rated was a gay man or of unspecified sex. Women and men evaluated lesbians similarly. Ratings of homosexual persons and homosexual behavior were least likely to differ by subject sex for samples of nonprofessional adults. In addition, sex role attitude mediated sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuality. Biases in the research literature and areas that deserve further attention, such as the confounding of sample with measurement strategy and the tendency to study gay men or targets of unspecified sex, are discussed.

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CHEATING AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS: A Review

A review was conducted of the results of 107studies of the prevalence and correlates of cheatingamong college students published between 1970 and 1996.The studies found cheating to be more common in the 1969-75 and 1986-96 time periods thanbetween 1976 and 1985. Among the strongest correlates ofcheating were having moderate expectations of success,having cheated in the past, studying under poor conditions, holding positive attitudes towardcheating, perceiving that social norms support cheating,and anticipating a large reward for success. However, animportant limitation on the conclusions drawn from this research is that many variables wereincluded in only one or a few studies. A model of theantecedents of cheating is proposed and the implicationsof this model for the identification of students at risk for cheating and controlling cheatingare discussed.

Gender Differences in Computer-Related Attitudes and Behavior: A Meta-Analysis.

Abstract A meta-analysis of studies of gender differences in computer-related attitudes and behavior using US and Canadian participants found that men and boys exhibited greater sex-role stereotyping of computers, higher computer self-efficacy, and more positive affect about computers than did women and girls. These effect sizes varied as a function of study population — adult, college, high school, and grammar school — with the largest differences generally found for high school students. Gender differences in beliefs about computers approached zero and did not vary by study population. Gender differences in computer-related behaviors were small and did not differ as a function of study population. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Sex-role orientation and psychological well-being: Two meta-analyses

Research on the relationship between sex-role orientation and psychological well-being has been guided by one of three models. The traditional congruence model holds that psychological well-being will be fostered only when ones sex-role orientation is congruent with ones gender; the androgyny model proposes that well-being will be maximized when ones sex-role orientation incorporates a high degree of both masculinity and femininity regardless of ones gender; the masculinity model posits that well-being is a function of the extent to which one has a masculine sex-role orientation. The adequacy of these three models was tested by means of a meta-analysis of 32 studies of the relationship between sex-role orientation and depression and general adjustment. The results of the meta-analysis provided the best support for the masculinity model, with masculinity having a moderately strong relationship to both high adjustment and lack of depression and with femininity having only a small relationship to adjustment and no relationship to depression. No support was found for the congruence model.

Gender Differences in Cheating Attitudes and Classroom Cheating Behavior: A Meta-Analysis

Although academic dishonesty is a major problemin American colleges and universities, relatively littleresearch has investigated gender differences incheating. Based on the differential socialization theory of gender differences in moral reasoning(e.g., Chodorow, 1989; Gilligan, 1982) we expected that,compared to women, men would report more favorableattitudes toward cheating and more cheating behavior. We conducted a meta-analysis that included 8studies of gender differences in attitudes towardcheating, 34 studies of gender differences in cheatingbehavior, and 6 studies that investigated both attitudes and behavior. Although the mean effect size forgender differences in attitudes was of moderatemagnitude, equivalent to a correlation of r = .21, themean effect size for behavior was small, equivalent to r = .08. Behavior effect sizes also varied asa function of field of study, method of data collection,and country in which the study was conducted. We discussthe implications of our results for future research on gender differences in academicdishonesty.

Sex differences in attitudes toward homosexuality: A comment on Oliver and Hyde (1993).

In a recent article, M. B. Oliver and J. S. Hyde (1993) reported the results of a set of meta-analyses of gender differences on a number of sexuality-related variables, including attitudes toward homosexuality. The small number of studies on this topic included in the review suggested that Oliver and Hydes literature search strategy overlooked a number of studies. This article reports the results of a new meta-analysis using an expanded search strategy. In contrast to Oliver and Hydes results, it was found that men held more negative attitudes toward homosexuality and, to a lesser extent, the civil rights of lesbians and gay men than did women. Effect sizes were moderated by subject population, with general adult samples showing no sex difference and other samples showing larger effect sizes. Effect sizes also varied as a function of the sex of the person rated, with larger sex differences for gay men than for lesbians. The implications of the results for the process of literature reviewing and for gender-based explanations of antigay prejudice are discussed.

Masculinity, Femininity, and Self-Esteem: A Multitrait-Multimethod Analysis.

A multitrait-multimethod matrix analysis was conducted to determine (1) the degree to which self-report trait and behavior measures of sex role orientation converge, (2) the degree to which measures of masculinity and self-esteem can be discriminated, and (3) the relative degree of relationship of trait and behavior measures of sex role orientation to self-esteem. The results indicated that trait and behavior measures of masculinity and femininity showed little convergence, that trait masculinity did not meet the criteria for discrimination from self-esteem, and that trait masculinity was more strongly correlated with self-esteem than was behavior masculinity. These results were stronger for women than for men.

The relation of gender-role orientation to sexual experience among college students

This study examined the relations of gender and three aspects of gender roles — self concept, behavior, and sexual attitudes — to three aspects of sexual behavior — sexual experience, reasons for intercourse, and contraceptive use. Gender was strongly related to all three aspects of sexual behavior. For both men and women, sex role behaviors were related to sexual experience and to reasons for intercourse, but not to contraceptive use, and sex role self-concept was unrelated to any of the aspects of sexual behavior. The results indicate that sexual behavior is influenced both by societal gender role norms and by individual differences in the acceptance of those norms.

Predictors of Academic Success in the Undergraduate Psychology Major

Transcript data were compiled on 288 recent college graduates majoring in psychology to determine the variables that correlated best with grade point average in psychology (PSYGPA). The graduates were a highly diverse group in terms of high school academic backgrounds, grades in high school, and Scholastic Aptitude Test scores. Factor analysis of 26 predictor variables revealed three clusters of variables: high school grades/verbal, general studies, and mathematics. Multiple regression analyses revealed PSYGPA to be predicted by the grade in Introductory Psychology, general studies coursework, and mathematics factors, which together accounted for 67% of the variance. The prediction equation differed somewhat from that obtained for students at another university; consequently, prediction equations used to screen majors should be based only on students at a particular institution.

Ethnic and Nationality Stereotypes in Everyday Language

The authors describe a demonstration of stereotype use in everyday language that focuses on common phrases reflecting stereotypic beliefs about ethnic groups or nationalities. The exercise encourages students’ discussion of stereotype use. Students read 13 common phrases from the English language and stated whether they had used each phrase and whether the meaning of the phrase is positive or negative. Evaluations of the exercise showed that it is effective for increasing awareness of stereotype use in everyday language. The authors provide suggested topics for class discussion.