Bernard Scott

Learning Strategies and Individual Competence.

In a free-learning task, individuals are assigned to different categories of cognitive competence on the basis of the teaching strategy they adopt. Two major types are distinguished: holists or global learners and serialists or step by step learners, on the basis of analysis of the type of hypothesis that learners test in carrying out the task and a content analysis of the protocols produced when learners are asked to teach back what they have learned. For other tasks, using the same subjects, it is shown that teaching is most effective when the teaching materials are structured so as to match an individuals competence and the converse holds when there is mismatch. The results are interpreted for a theory of learning/teaching and the need for a language suitable for talking about strategies and subject matter structures is discussed.

Caste: A system for exhibiting learning strategies and regulating uncertainties*

CASTE (Course Assembly System and Tutorial Environment) is a facility for observing and controlling human learning. This paper describes the system and presents data on its use as a conversational system for teaching elementary concepts of probability theory to Technical College Students. A summary is given of the work on adaptive teaching systems that led to the development of CASTE for subject matters where students can and do adapt a variety of learning strategies. For such cases adaptive teaching is not sufficient; a system is called for which learns about a students preferred learning strategy by engaging him in a dialogue about his learning; CASTE is such a system.

A theory of conversations and individuals (exemplified by the learning process on CASTE).

The main tenet of the theory is that the minimal experimental situation for making psychological observations is a conversation. The logical and structural requirements for making such observations are presented in a series of icons which dynamically represent formalisms in the abstract theory of self-reproducing automata. Two sorts of stable, self-reproducing systems are distinguished: mechanically characterized individuals (M-Individuals) and psychologically characterized individuals. (P-Individuals). A conversation is a P-Individual (a selfreproducing class of procedures) that is executed in one or more of a restricted class of M-Individuals (processors). The theory is exemplified by work on learning and teaching using CASTE (Course Assembly System and Tutorial Environment) which is itself a physical embodiment of the theory in the form of a vehicle for observing conversations. Other exemplifications are given as interpretations, within the current theory, of the paradigms extant in conventional experimental psychology.

The representation of knowables

A formal account is given of the structure of conversational domains. A procedure is described which permits the construction of representations of the domains of tutorial conversations (knowledge structures) together with an account of the use of the procedure for structuring academic subject matters. Mechanized versions of the procedure, a series of computer programs, have been developed and implemented. A description of their form is presented and interpreted for a theory of learning and teaching. The interpretation is related to empirical studies of learning style.

Second‐order cybernetics: an historical introduction

In 1974, Heinz von Foerster articulated the distinction between a first‐ and second‐order cybernetics, as, respectively, the cybernetics of observed systems and the cybernetics of observing systems. Von Foersters distinction, together with his own work on the epistemology of the observer, has been enormously influential on the work of a later generation of cyberneticians. It has provided an architecture for the discipline of cybernetics, one that, in true cybernetic spirit, provides order where previously there was variety and disorder. It has provided a foundation for the research programme that is second‐order cybernetics. However, as von Foerster himself makes clear, the distinction he articulated was imminent right from the outset in the thinking of the early cyberneticians, before, even, the name of their discipline had been coined. In this paper, the author gives a brief account of the developments in cybernetics that lead to von Foersters making his distinction. As is the way of such narratives, it is but one perspective on a complex series of events. Not only is this account a personal perspective, it also includes some recollections of events that were observed and participated in at first hand.

Use of conversation theory to underpin blended learning

Our work is concerned with the search for a viable pedagogical theory for a part time information technology course facilitated in blended learning. It was initially thought that the Conversational Framework (Laurillard, 1993) would provide this, and could be examined utilising action research. We examine the Conversation Theory related literature (Scott, 2001; Harri-Augstein and Thomas, 1991) and our action research data, including staff and student interviews and focus groups. The findings suggest that despite some theoretical alignment with Blended Learning, there is a need to amend and enrich the Conversational Framework in order to make it more applicable.

Cybernetic principles for learning design

Purpose – This paper aims to present an approach from first principles to the design of learning experiences in interactive learning environments, that is “learning designs” in the broadest sense.Design/methodology/approach – The approach is based on conversation theory (CT), a theory of learning and teaching with principled foundations in cybernetics. The approach to learning design that is proposed is not dissimilar from other approaches such as that proposed by Rowntree. However, its basis in CT provides a coherent theoretical underpinning.Findings – Currently, in the world of e‐learning, the terms “instructional design” and “learning design” are used to refer to the application of theories of learning and instruction to the creation of e‐learning material and online learning experiences. The paper examines the roots of the two terms and discusses similarities and differences in usage. It then discusses how the processes of learning design fit into the larger processes of course, design, development an...

Inadvertent pathologies of communication in human systems

Using the framework of second‐order cybernetics, explores the institutional practices which lead to inadvertent pathologies of communication. As an example, a certain university regularly carries out large‐scale surveys of student attitudes towards its courses. Three interested parties are the researchers, senior management concerned with quality, and faculty members who produce the courses. All agree the surveys should be carried out, but there are no guarantees that the survey findings are appropriately interpreted and acted on. This kind of scenario is common in large institutions. Second‐order cybernetics offers a theoretical framework that can shed light on these communicative practices and help unpack them in a way that is “politically” neutral. It can also help foster reflective practice in the spirit of action research and “action learning”. Presents case histories of pathologies and gives an example of how pathologies of communication may prevent relevant research being undertaken.

Intelligent tutoring: from SAKI to Byzantium

Describes Byzantium, an intelligent tutoring system for teaching the concepts and skills of accounting. The generic design philosophy of Byzantium and its associated intelligent tutoring tools are described, together with commentary that places Byzantium in the tradition of the adaptive teaching machines and conversational tutorial systems (SAKI and CASTE) developed by Gordon Pask.

What is a symbol

Purpose – In order to develop transdisciplinary working across the disciplines, clear epistemological foundations are required. The purpose of this paper is to show that sociocybernetics to provides the required unifying metadisciplinary epistemological foundations and transdisciplinary frameworks.Design/methodology/approach – The authors note that second‐order cybernetics provides a metadisciplinary framework for discerning the causes and cures for the schisms within the natural and cognitive sciences. The particular contributions of sociocybernetics are to extend the second‐order understandings to unify the social sciences and, by incorporating extant sociological theory back into the transdisciplinary pursuits of cybernetics and systems theory, to enlighten and enrich those pursuits.Findings – In order to highlight the power and fruitfulness of these contributions from sociocybernetics, the authors problematise, deconstruct and reconstruct key concepts concerned with human communication. To do this, th...