Beth Binnington

Quantitative analysis of the lipidomes of the influenza virus envelope and MDCK cell apical membrane

Analysis of the lipid composition of influenza virus–infected cells provides support for the membrane raft-based biogenesis model.

The human P-k histo-blood group antigen provides protection against HIV-1 infection

Several human histo-blood groups are glycosphingolipids, including P/P1/P(k). Glycosphingolipids are implicated in HIV-host-cell-fusion and some bind to HIV-gp120 in vitro. Based on our previous studies on Fabry disease, where P(k) accumulates and reduces infection, and a soluble P(k) analog that inhibits infection, we investigated cell surface-expressed P(k) in HIV infection. HIV-1 infection of peripheral blood-derived mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from otherwise healthy persons, with blood group P(1)(k), where P(k) is overexpressed, or blood group p, that completely lacks P(k), were compared with draw date-matched controls. Fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis and/or thin layer chromatography were used to verify P(k) levels. P(1)(k) PBMCs were highly resistant to R5 and X4 HIV-1 infection. In contrast, p PBMCs showed 10- to 1000-fold increased susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. Surface and total cell expression of P(k), but not CD4 or chemokine coreceptor expression, correlated with infection. P(k) liposome-fused cells and CD4(+) HeLa cells manipulated to express high or low P(k) levels confirmed a protective effect of P(k). We conclude that P(k) expression strongly influences susceptibility to HIV-1 infection, which implicates P(k) as a new endogenous cell-surface factor that may provide protection against HIV-1 infection.

A novel soluble mimic of the glycolipid, globotriaosyl ceramide inhibits HIV infection

Objective:To determine the effect of a gp120 binding, non-cytotoxic soluble analogue of the glycosphingolipid (GSL), globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3) on HIV infection in vitro. Design:HIV-1IIIB (X4 virus) infection in Jurkat and phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)/interleukin-2 (IL2) activated, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and HIV-1Ba-L (R5 virus) infection of PHA activated PBMC in vitro were assessed. We monitored cell surface markers, cell viability, and viral/host cell morphology to eliminate pleiotropic effects. Viral-host cell fusion was measured to further address any inhibitory mechanism. Methods:HIV infection was monitored by p24gag ELISA. CD4, CCR5, CXCR4 and apoptosis were determined by fluorescent antibody cell sorting. A model fusion system comprising a cell line transfected with either CD4 and CXCR4 or CCR5, cocultured with a cell line expressing gp120 from either X4-, R5-tropic HIV-1 or HIV-2 virions, was used. PHA/IL2 activated PBMC GSL synthesis was monitored by metabolic radiolabelling. Results:AdamantylGb3 blocked X4 and R5 virus infection with a 50% inhibitory concentration of approximately 150 μM. A reverse transcriptase and a protease-resistant X4 HIV-1 strain retained adamantylGb3 sensitivity. AdamantylGb3 had minimal effect on cell viability. Treated Jurkat cells showed a small increase in CCR5/CXCR4 expression and a slight, transient CD4 down-regulation, which was probably not related to the mechanism of inhibition. Electron microscopy showed normal viral and host cell morphology following adamantylGb3 treatment, and viral entry was blocked. AdamantylGb3 was able to prevent virus-host cell fusion irrespective of HIV strain or chemokine receptor preference. Conclusions:These results suggest that adamantylGb3 may provide a new basis for blocking HIV infections, irrespective of HIV envelope/chemokine co-receptor preference or resistance to other therapeutics.

A major fraction of glycosphingolipids in model and cellular cholesterol-containing membranes is undetectable by their binding proteins.

Glycosphingolipids (GSLs) accumulate in cholesterol-enriched cell membrane domains and provide receptors for protein ligands. Lipid-based “aglycone” interactions can influence GSL carbohydrate epitope presentation. To evaluate this relationship, Verotoxin binding its receptor GSL, globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3), was analyzed in simple GSL/cholesterol, detergent-resistant membrane vesicles by equilibrium density gradient centrifugation. Vesicles separated into two Gb3/cholesterol-containing populations. The lighter, minor fraction (<5% total GSL), bound VT1, VT2, IgG/IgM mAb anti-Gb3, HIVgp120 or Bandeiraea simplicifolia lectin. Only IgM anti-Gb3, more tolerant of carbohydrate modification, bound both vesicle fractions. Post-embedding cryo-immuno-EM confirmed these results. This appears to be a general GSL-cholesterol property, because similar receptor-inactive vesicles were separated for other GSL-protein ligand systems; cholera toxin (CTx)-GM1, HIVgp120-galactosyl ceramide/sulfatide. Inclusion of galactosyl or glucosyl ceramide (GalCer and GlcCer) rendered VT1-unreactive Gb3/cholesterol vesicles, VT1-reactive. We found GalCer and GlcCer bind Gb3, suggesting GSL-GSL interaction can counter cholesterol masking of Gb3. The similar separation of Vero cell membrane-derived vesicles into minor “binding,” and major “non-binding” fractions when probed with VT1, CTx, or anti-SSEA4 (a human GSL stem cell marker), demonstrates potential physiological relevance. Cell membrane GSL masking was cholesterol- and actin-dependent. Cholesterol depletion of Vero and HeLa cells enabled differential VT1B subunit labeling of “available” and “cholesterol-masked” plasma membrane Gb3 pools by fluorescence microscopy. Thus, the model GSL/cholesterol vesicle studies predicted two distinct membrane GSL formats, which were demonstrated within the plasma membrane of cultured cells. Cholesterol masking of most cell membrane GSLs may impinge many GSL receptor functions.

Differential intracellular transport and binding of verotoxin 1 and verotoxin 2 to globotriaosylceramide-containing lipid assemblies

Although verotoxin‐1 (VT1) and verotoxin‐2 (VT2) share a common receptor, globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3), VT2 induces distinct animal pathology and is preferentially associated with human disease. Moreover VT2 cytotoxicity in vitro is less than VT1. We therefore investigated whether these toxins similarly traffic within cells via similar Gb3 assemblies. At 4°C, fluorescent‐VT1 and VT2 bound both coincident and distinct punctate surface Gb3 microdomains. After 10 min at 37°C, similar distinct/coincident micropunctate intracellular localization was observed. Most internalized VT2, but not VT1, colocalized with transferrin. After 1 h, VT1 and VT2 coalesced during retrograde transport to the Golgi. During prolonged incubation (3–6 h), VT1, and VT2 (more slowly), exited the Golgi to reach the ER/nuclear envelope. At this time, VT2 induced a previously unreported, retrograde transport‐dependent vacuolation. Cell surface and intracellular VT1 showed greater detergent resistance than VT2, suggesting differential ‘raft’ association. >90% 125I‐VT1 cell surface bound, or added to detergent‐resistant cell membrane extracts (DRM), was in the Gb3‐containing sucrose gradient ‘insoluble’ fraction, whereas only 30% 125I‐VT2 was similarly DRM‐associated. VT1 bound more efficiently to Gb3/cholesterol DRMs generated in vitro. Only VT1 binding was inhibited by high cholesterol/Gb3 ratios. VT2 competed less effectively for 125I‐VT1/Gb3 DRM‐binding but only VT2‐Gb3/cholesterol DRM‐binding was augmented by sphingomyelin. Differential VT1/VT2 Gb3 raft‐binding may mediate differential cell binding/intracellular trafficking and cytopathology. J. Cell. Physiol. 216: 750–763, 2008,

Effect of Globotriaosyl Ceramide Fatty Acid α-Hydroxylation on the Binding by Verotoxin 1 and Verotoxin 2

Variation in the lipid moiety of the verotoxin (VT) receptor glycosphingolipid, globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3) can modulate toxin binding. The binding of VT1 and VT2 to C18 and C22 ahydroxy and nonhydroxy fatty acid isoforms of Gb3 were compared using a receptor ELISA and a 125l-labeled toxin/glycolipid microtitre plate direct binding assay. Increased binding to the hydroxylated species, particularly C22OH, was observed for both toxins. Increased RELISA binding at low glycolipid concentrations only, suggested the binding affinity is increased following Gb3 fatty acid hydroxylation. Nonlinear regression analysis of direct binding assay to these Gb3 isoforms confirmed the increased affinity of both toxins for the C22 hydroxylated Gb3. The capacity was also significantly increased. The increased binding of VTs for hydroxylated fatty acid Gb3 isoforms may be a factor in the selective renal pathology which can follow systemic verotoxemia, particularly in the mouse model. The more pronounced effect at lower glycolipid concentrations prompted investigation of VT1 binding affinity at different Gb3 concentrations. Unexpectedly, the VT1 Kd for Gb3 was found to decrease as an inverse function of the Gb3 concentration. This shows that glycolipids have “nonclassical” receptor properties.

New aspects of the regulation of glycosphingolipid receptor function.

We propose that the fatty acid heterogeneity of glycosphingolipids may compensate for the relative few and simple glycosphingolipid structures found in mammalian cells. Variation in GSL fatty acid composition may mediate aglycone regulation of GSL membrane receptor function by a differential interaction with cholesterol and other membrane components which may be differentially organized within plasma membrane lipid domains. These concepts are specifically illustrated in model membrane studies and in relation to the role of the glycolipid, globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb(3)) in verotoxin-induced renal pathology and gp120 binding in HIV infection.

Induction of HIV-1 resistance: cell susceptibility to infection is an inverse function of globotriaosyl ceramide levels

To examine the role of the glycosphingolipid (GSL), globotriaosylceramide (Gb(3), CD77, p(k) blood group antigen) in HIV-1 infection, we have pharmacologically modulated Gb(3) metabolism in an X4 HIV-1 infectable monocytic cell line (THP-1) that naturally expresses Gb(3) and in a Gb(3)-expressing glioblastoma cell line (U87) transfected to express both CD4 and CCR5 to permit R5 HIV-1 infection. THP-1 and U87 cells were treated with either a competitive inhibitor of alpha-galactosidase A, 1-deoxygalactonojirimycin (DGJ) to induce Gb(3) accumulation, or a glucosylceramide synthase inhibitor, phenyl-2-palmitylamino-3-pyrrolidino-1-propanol (P4) to deplete cells of Gb(3). HIV susceptibility was determined via measurement of p24(gag) antigen production by ELISA. In addition, total cellular Gb(3) content was determined using thin layer chromatography followed by Verotoxin1 overlay binding. The cell surface expression of Gb(3) was verified by FACS analysis. We found that DGJ significantly decreased THP-1 and U87 cell susceptibility to HIV-1(IIIB) and HIV-1(BaL) infection, respectively, at a concentration of approximately 100 microM. In contrast, P4 (2 microM) substantially increased cellular susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. Total cellular GSL analysis verified increased Gb(3) expression in cells treated with DGJ and considerable reduction of Gb(3) in P4-treated cells as compared to controls. These results show a reciprocal relationship between Gb(3) expression and infection with either X4 HIV-1(IIIB) or R5 HIV-1(Ba-L). These results support previous studies that Gb(3) provides resistance to HIV infection. Variable Gb(3) expression may provide a natural HIV resistance factor in the general population, and pharmacological manipulation of Gb(3) levels may provide an approach to induction of HIV resistance.

Treatment of neutral glycosphingolipid lysosomal storage diseases via inhibition of the ABC drug transporter, MDR1 Cyclosporin A can lower serum and liver globotriaosyl ceramide levels in the Fabry mouse model

We have shown that the ABC transporter, multiple drug resistance protein 1 (MDR1, P‐glycoprotein) translocates glucosyl ceramide from the cytosolic to the luminal Golgi surface for neutral, but not acidic, glycosphingolipid (GSL) synthesis. Here we show that the MDR1 inhibitor, cyclosporin A (CsA) can deplete Gaucher lymphoid cell lines of accumulated glucosyl ceramide and Fabry cell lines of globotriaosyl ceramide (Gb3), by preventing de novo synthesis. In the Fabry mouse model, Gb3 is increased in the heart, liver, spleen, brain and kidney. The lack of renal glomerular Gb3 is retained, but the number of verotoxin 1 (VT1)‐staining renal tubules, and VT1 tubular targeting in vivo, is markedly increased in Fabry mice. Adult Fabry mice were treated with α‐galactosidase (enzyme‐replacement therapy, ERT) to eliminate serum Gb3 and lower Gb3 levels in some tissues. Serum Gb3 was monitored using a VT1 ELISA during a post‐ERT recovery phase ± biweekly intra peritoneal CsA. After 9 weeks, tissue Gb3 content and localization were determined using VT1/TLC overlay and histochemistry. Serum Gb3 recovered to lower levels after CsA treatment. Gb3 was undetected in wild‐type liver, and the levels of Gb3 (but not gangliosides) in Fabry mouse liver were significantly depleted by CsA treatment. VT1 liver histochemistry showed Gb3 accumulated in Kupffer cells, endothelial cell subsets within the central and portal vein and within the portal triad. Hepatic venule endothelial and Kupffer cell VT1 staining was considerably reduced by in vivo CsA treatment. We conclude that MDR1 inhibition warrants consideration as a novel adjunct treatment for neutral GSL storage diseases.

Comparison of detection methods for cell surface globotriaosylceramide

The cell surface-expressed glycosphingolipid (GSL), globotriaosylceramide (Gb(3)), is becoming increasingly important and is widely studied in the areas of verotoxin (VT)-mediated cytotoxicity, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, immunology and cancer. However, despite its diverse roles and implications, an optimized detection method for cell surface Gb(3) has not been determined. GSLs are differentially organized in the plasma membrane which can affect their availability for protein binding. To examine various detection methods for cell surface Gb(3), we compared four reagents for use in flow cytometry analysis. A natural ligand (VT1B) and three different monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were optimized and tested on various human cell lines for Gb(3) detection. A differential detection pattern of cell surface Gb(3) expression, which was influenced by the choice of reagent, was observed. Two mAb were found to be suboptimal. However, two other methods were found to be useful as defined by their high percentage of positivity and mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) values. Rat IgM anti-Gb(3) mAb (clone 38-13) using phycoerythrin-conjugated secondary antibody was found to be the most specific detection method while the use of VT1B conjugated to Alexa488 fluorochrome was found to be the most sensitive; showing a rare crossreactivity only when Gb(4) expression was highly elevated. The findings of this study demonstrate the variability in detection of Gb(3) depending on the reagent and cell target used and emphasize the importance of selecting an optimal methodology in studies for the detection of cell surface expression of Gb(3).