Bettina Lamm

Cultural Models, Socialization Goals, and Parenting Ethnotheories A Multicultural Analysis

This study conceptualizes a cultural model of parenting. It is argued that cultural models are expressed in the degree of familism, which informs socialization goals that are embodied in parenting ethnotheories. Three cultural models were differentiated a priori: independent, interdependent, and autonomous-related. Samples were recruited that were expected to represent these cultural models: German, Euro-American, and Greek middle-class women representing the independent cultural model; Cameroonian Nso and Gujarati farming women representing the interdependent cultural model; and urban Indian, urban Chinese, urban Mexican, and urban Costa Rican women representing the autonomous-related model. These a priori classifications were confirmed with data that addressed different levels of the cultural models of parenting. The authors further confirmed that socialization goals mediate between broader sociocultural orientations (familism) and parenting ethnotheories concerning beliefs about good parenting. The data reveal that the model of autonomous relatedness needs further theoretical and empirical refinement. Problems with empirical studies comparing participants with very different lifestyles are discussed.

The Psycho-linguistic Embodiment of Parental Ethnotheories: A New Avenue to Understanding Cultural Processes in Parental Reasoning

A linguistic discourse analysis of the study of parental ethnotheories is proposed in this paper. It is argued that not only are ideas about parenting informed by the cultural environment, but the ways ideas are formulated in language itself can be understood as expressing cultural codes. In order to identify these cultural codes, we analysed interviews with mothers from independent and interdependent cultural contexts and looked for specific differences in the content and linguistic markers found in these personal narratives. We studied interviews with mothers from: two typically independent cultural communities (middle-class mothers from Los Angeles, USA, and Berlin, Germany); one typical interdependent cultural community (West African Nso farmers); and a cultural community that is believed to combine independent and interdependent orientations (middle-class urban Nso). The styles and analysis enabled us to discover the cultural embodiment of ethnotheories in terms of characteristic linguistic markers associated with independent and interdependent parenting environments. The close association between style and content in the narratives sheds further light on children’s early socialization environments.

Similarities and differences in contingency experiences of 3-month-olds across sociocultural contexts.

In this study we analyzed similarities and differences in the contingency experiences of 159 three-month-olds from 6 sociocultural contexts. Across contexts, caretakers responded with similar overall contingency levels, vocalizations provided the dominant response as well as the most salient signal, and there was a relative signal-response correspondence. With two exceptions, infants in all samples most often got responses addressing their sense of hearing, followed by the sense of touch and then sight. In response to nondistress vocalizations, infants from independent contexts (Berlin, Los Angeles) experienced more contingent responses addressing their sense of sight than infants from autonomous-related (Beijing, Delhi, urban Nso from Cameroon) or interdependent contexts (rural Nso). Rural Nso infants experienced more contingent responses addressing their sense of touch than infants from all other but the Los Angeles sample. These results support the interpretation of contingent responsiveness as a part of the intuitive parenting program that manifests differentially depending on culture-specific emphases on distal and proximal caretaking.

Understanding Cultural Models of Parenting: The Role of Intracultural Variation and Response Style:

Intracultural variation and response behavior are understood as integral parts of cultural models of parenting that provide independent information. German, Euro-American, and Greek middle-class women representing the independent cultural model; Cameroonian Nso and Gujarati farming women representing the interdependent cultural model; and urban Indian, Chinese, Mexican, and Costa Rican women representing an autonomous-related model were recruited. The results confirm that participants with an interdependent cultural model respond more extremely on the scales, but the expected lower intracultural variation in this group was confirmed only partially.

Grandmaternal and maternal ethnotheories about early child care.

Parenting ethnotheories represent an organized set of ideas about parents, children, and development that are shared by members of cultural groups. Because these ideas and beliefs reflect cultural models and serve as representational frameworks for parenting strategies, they need to change with historical time. To analyze these changes, the authors interviewed mothers and grandmothers of 3-month-old infants in 4 different cultural environments--urban German middle-class families (41 mothers, 22 grandmothers), urban Indian middle-class families (36 mothers, 12 grandmothers), rural Cameroonian Nso families (29 mothers, 20 grandmothers), and urban Cameroonian Nso families (28 mothers, 12 grandmothers)--in regard to their ideas about infant care. The interviews were analyzed according to content and discourse style. The results reveal that there is not only transmission of parental beliefs from one generation to the next but also variation in adaptation to changing environments. Although the global trend toward more independent cultural models of parenting is confirmed, the magnitude of change varies across the different cultural environments.

Developing patterns of parenting in two cultural communities

This paper is aimed at analyzing verbal and nonverbal strategies in terms of body contact, face-to-face contact, and discourse style during the first three months of life in two cultural communities that have been characterized as embodying different cultural models of parenting: German middle-class, and Nso farmer families. It can be demonstrated that the Nso mothers have significantly higher rates of body contact during the assessments of free-play interactions during the first 12 weeks than the German women. The German women on the other hand demonstrate the expected increase of face-to-face contact, whereas the Nso women demonstrate a significantly lower and stable pattern of face-to-face contact over the assessments. The German mothers use an agentic discourse style, whereas the Nso mothers use a relational discourse style. Moreover, body contact and a relational discourse style form one parenting strategy, whereas face-to-face contact and the agentic discourse style form another parenting strategy. The results demonstrate culture-specific parenting strategies that not only differ with respect to the amount of behaviors expressed, but also the developmental course of particular behaviors. It is also evident that socialization strategies are expressed in different behavioral channels. The role of sociodemographic variables is particularly discussed with respect to their impact for defining sociocultural environments.

The development of 3- to 9-month-old infants in two cultural contexts: Bayley longitudinal results for Cameroonian and German infants

Based on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development III, this study provides the results of a longitudinal study on the development of Cameroonian Nso farmer and German middle-class infants. Complete longitudinal data were available for 253 infants (69 from Cameroon and 184 from Germany) with Bayley assessments at 3, 6 and 9 months. The results show large differences between Cameroonian Nso and German infants with regard to gross motor and language development. The developmental sequence within each Bayley scale is more in line with the original Bayley sequence for German than for Cameroonian Nso infants as is indicated by Goodman scalogram analyses. Path analyses show some basic similarities between the developmental paths across ages for Cameroonian Nso and German infants, but more interconnections between the scales in the German sample. The results underline the need to adjust developmental scales to the cultural background of the infants to be tested.

Continuity in Parenting Strategies: A Cross-Cultural Comparison

This prospective longitudinal study is aimed at contributing to the understanding of cultural diversity concerning maternal parenting behaviors and conversational styles on one hand and continuity in parenting strategies on the other hand. It could be demonstrated that German middle-class families from Berlin and Indian Hindu middle-class families from Delhi represent two different cultural environments embodying different parenting strategies. The Berlin mothers focus on the cultural model of independence, whereas the Delhi mothers focus on the cultural model of autonomous relatedness. These different orientations are expressed in nonverbal and conversational behaviors with 3-month-old babies as well as in the play styles with 19-month-old toddlers. It could also be demonstrated that the parenting styles form continuous socialization environments. Especially the conversation styles that mothers use while talking to their 3-month-old babies were good predictors for the play styles with their 19-month-old toddlers. The results are discussed with an emphasis on parenting strategies as continuous and consistent cultural projects.

Mother–Infant Interactions at Home and in a Laboratory Setting: A Comparative Analysis in Two Cultural Contexts

This study addresses the question how the setting of assessment influences maternal playing behavior with their 3-month-old infants across cultures. Mother–infant interactions of 338 dyads from two cultural communities (German middle-class and rural Cameroonian Nso) were videotaped either in their home or in a laboratory setting. Results indicate that both settings of assessment are appropriate to observe cultural differences in maternal interactional behavior. As expected, rural Nso mothers show more proximal interactional behavior than German middle-class mothers, who focus more on distal behavioral strategies. The laboratory setting amplifies cultural differences by culture-specific effects on the playing behavior. Whereas rural Nso mothers show increased activities in the lab, German middle-class mothers’ behavior seems to be inhibited.

Fundamental frequency variation within neonatal crying: Does ambient language matter?

Objective: Evaluate the fundamental frequency (fo) variabilty of spontaneous cries produced by neonates with tonal (Lamnso) and non-tonal (German) ambient language. Study Design: Populational prospective study. Participants: A total of 21 German infants (10 male) and 21 Cameroon (Nso) infants (10 male) within the first week of life served as participants. Methods: Spontaneously uttered cries by each infant were audio recorded. The cries were acoustically analyzed and measures of fo variability (pitch sigma, fo fluctuation, fo range) were calculated. Cry duration and anthropometric measures were calculated as co-factors. Results: Significant group differences were found for all fo variability measures, whereas somatic measures did not differ. Cry duration also differed significantly between groups. The results were indicative of Cameroon (Nso) infants producing cries with more fo variability compared to German infants. Conclusion: Albeit further studies with a larger sample size are warranted, the data foster previous findings of an early imprinting effect of the ambient maternal language on cry fo.