Betty J. Meggers

Archeological evidence for the impact of mega-Niño events on Amazonia during the past two millennia

Recent recognition of teleconnections between El Niño and climatic anomalies elsewhere on the planet identify northern lowland South America as a region experiencing drought. Extensive archeological survey along the major tributaries of the Amazon during the past 15 years has defined the temporal and spatial distributions of numerous ceramic phases and traditions. An unexpected result has been identification of discontinuities in most local sequences. Large numbers of carbon-14 dates establish their contemporaneity ca. 1500, 1000, 700, and 400 B.P. These dates correlate closely with archeological evidence on the north coast of Peru for destructive mega-Niño events. Observations of the impact of milder recent episodes on the flora and fauna imply catastrophic deterioration in local subsistence resources during prehistoric events, forcing the repeated human dispersals reflected in the linguistic and genetic heterogeneity of surviving indigenous lowland South American populations.

Vegetational fluctuation and prehistoric cultural adaptation in Amazonia: Some tentative correlations

Abstract Biogeographical studies have generated the hypothesis that the remarkably large number of plant and animal species inhabiting Amazonia are a consequence of several episodes of forest fragmentation and coalescence, in which periods of isolation that permitted biological differentiation alternated with periods of renewed interaction. Geological and palynological evidence support this reconstruction, but data are insufficient to permit definition of the dimensions and locations of the refugia, or to separate one episode from another. Dating is tentative, but the two most recent episodes appear to fall within the span of human occupation of the continent. Examination of linguistic, archaeological and ethnographic data reveals widespread dispersals, disjunct distributions and other patterns of the kinds observed by biogeographers. Glottochronological and Carbon‐14 dates correlate well enough with estimates for the durations of the forest refugia to suggest that the biogeographical model is useful for ...

Climatic Oscillation as a Factor in the Prehistory of Amazonia

The existence of climatic oscillations during the Quaternary in the Neotropics was inferred from the distributions and diversities of the modern flora and fauna. Recent data on soils, geomorphology, palynology, and paleoclimatology confirm the existence of periods of aridity and permit more accurate definition of their durations and impacts. A review of linguistic and archaeological evidence reveals patterns similar to those exhibited by a wide range of biological phenomena. The significance attached to these similarities depends on the theoretical paradigm by which they are judged.

Possible Transpacific Contact on the Coast of Ecuador

The earliest pottery-producing culture on the coast of Ecuador, the Valdivia culture, shows many striking similarities in decoration and vessel shape to pottery of eastern Asia. In Japan, resemblances are closest to the Middle Jomon period. Both early Valdivia and Middle Jomon are dated between 2000 and 3000 B.C. A transpacific contact from Asia to Ecuador during this time is postulated.

PART II, AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF THE METHOD E

Dating archaeological sites, cultures or phases by the obsidian method is still experimental, but shows promise provided the archaeologists understand the present limitations. Two categories of factors cause possible dating errors: the technical or geological aspect discussed by Friedman and Smith, and the archaeological context. For the establishment of valid rates of hydration and for the archaeological evaluation of the method, preferred samples are those datable by independent means, such as radiocarbon, dendrochronology, historical records, rates of refuse accumulation, contemporary calendars, or correlated positively with complexes or seriated sequences that are so dated. A few samples used in the preliminary part of the study do not meet these rigid standards and make the method look poorer than it is, but a table contains the raw data on all specimens tested to date. The principal source of potential error at our present state of knowledge is the frequency with which artifacts of older manufacture were re-used by a younger (more recent) culture. Evaluations of the data presented in the table and most of the results are discussed by geographical area. For the tropical region where the annual temperature range is minimal and where large obsidian samples from village refuse are available, the hydration rate appears to be a fairly accurate method of dating. Lack of conformity of obsidian dates with archaeological dates for the Maya region and the Southwest, however, emphasizes the need for further research using larger series of artifacts and for a continued examination of technical factors. Objects of modern manufacture can be identified with little difficulty, offering a simple means of detecting fakes or copies.

The Machalilla Culture: An Early Formative Complex on the Ecuadorian Coast

Excavations at the site of G-110: La Cabuya provide significant new data on the content and chronological position of the Machalilla culture. Trade pottery establishes its contemporaneity with the late period of the Valdivia culture, estimated at between 1800 and 1500 B.C. While seafood appears to have provided the main subsistence in both cultures, the ceramics and other artifacts are distinct. Machalilla pottery is well made, with thin walls and a high frequency of polished surfaces. Vessel shapes include carinated bowls and stirrup-spout jars. Typical decoration is by incision or thick red painting, separately or in combination, in simple but distinctive patterns. The Machalilla culture cannot be related to any of the known Formative complexes in Mesoamerica or South America, so that its origin cannot be suggested. Its termination was brought about by Mesoamerican contact, which added new traits to the Machalilla complex, producing the combination of elements characterizing the Chorrera culture.

Chapter 4 – Mid-Holocene climate and cultural dynamics in Brazil and the Guianas

Publisher Summary This chapter reviews the climatic and cultural dynamics in the Brazilian and Guyana and Surinam (Guianas) regions. Paleoclimatological evidence indicates that both Amazonia and the Brazilian coast were cooler and drier prior to ca. 7000 14C yr BP. In both regions, the forest was substantially reduced and the predominant vegetation was grass and shrubs as a result of climatic changes. These ameliorations permitted larger and more sedentary communities, but inherent limitations to intensive agriculture and dependence on wild protein sources placed a ceiling on population concentration throughout the lowlands. This study summarizes the evidence for paleoclimatological fluctuations and prehistoric cultural changes since ca. 13,000 14C yr BP (uncal.) separately for the Coastal Strip and the Amazon Basin. Both the climatological and cultural data indicate that these now distinct regions experienced long- and short-term environmental fluctuations during and since the Pleistocene that favored the emergence and perpetuation of similar general cultural configurations. The achievement of Holocene climatic conditions and stabilization of sea level ca. 5000 14C yr BP had major environmental consequences. It created an ecological barrier between Amazonia and the Coastal Strip and divided each region into a narrow aquatic zone and a large hinterland. Finally, it suggests that in contrast to other parts of the planet, Holocene climatic changes did not significantly improve the opportunities for agricultural intensification and associated cultural development.

ADVANCES IN BRAZILIAN ARCHEOLOGY, 1935-1985

Although Brazil occupies almost half the continent of South America, its archeology attracted little interest until recently from either nationals or foreigners. This is attributable to the characteristics of the remains. There are no buildings of stone, tools and ornaments of metal, or elaborate artifacts of cloth, wood, and bone. Except along the Amazon, pottery is not noted for its aesthetic qualities; even there, complete vessels with well preserved decoration are scarce. Shell middens along the southern coast are spectacular in size but deficient in cultural content. Other sites are predominantly shallow middens containing fragments of pottery, or flakes and minimally shaped tools of stone. Specialized techniquesin u and skills are necessary for extracting cultural and chronological meaning from such evidence and their introduction about 1965 revolutionized Brazilian archeology. An overview of progress during the past 50 years is provided by tabulating the annual totals of publications listed in two general bibliographies. The Handbook of Latin American Studies, initiated by the Hispanic Division of the Library of Congress in 1935, provides annotated lists of books and articles. Coverage is restricted by two factors: (1) unavailability of many publications and (2) limitations on space. Tabulating works by Brazilian authors by year of publication shows annual productivity of five titles or less prior to 1955 (Figure 1). Between 1956 and 1966, output during most years varied between five and eight. In 1967, there was a pronounced surge. Forty-three titles are listed for 1969 and 35 for 1971. Although there have been several large fluctuations, productivity has generally remained high to the present. Tabulating titles by foreign and domestic (Brazilian) authors in the far more complete bibliography published by Prous (1982) shows the same pattern. Prior to 1950, 10 or fewer titles are listed per year. Between 1950 and 1956, 10 to 20 are reported during most years. In 1966, there was a rapid expansion that peaked at 69 titles in 1969 and has usually exceeded 40 in subsequent years. These patterns provide a basis for recognizing three general periods in the history of Brazilian archeology during the past half century. Period 1, between 1935 and 1955, continues earlier isolated and predominantly amateur activities. Period 2, between 1955 and 1965, is characterized by several long-term programs of research and training that introduced scientific methods of excavation, analysis, and interpretation. Period 3, from 1965 to the present, reflects the adoption and widespread application of these methods throughout Brazil.

Resource optimization and environmental limitation in lowland South America

Hames, Raymond B.,.and William T. Vickers, eds. Adaptive Responses of Native Amazonians. New York: Academic Press, 1983. xv + 516 pp. including photographs, maps, references, and index.

The Amerindians in Guyana, 1803-1873: A Documentary History.

49.00 cloth.