Bhagirath Behera

Do forest resources help increase rural household income and alleviate rural poverty? Empirical evidence from Bhutan

Abstract About 73% of Bhutan’s land area is currently under forest coverage, and the forest occupies a potentially important position in promoting rural livelihood and thereby alleviating the poverty of people living in and around the forest. This study uses data from the Bhutan Living Standard Survey to examine the relative contribution of wood and non-wood-based forest products to rural household income and poverty alleviation. It uses a propensity score matching approach to correct for potential sample selection bias that may arise due to systematic differences between households who exploit forest resources and those who do not. Our results show that rural households with forestry related activities have a higher income and are less prone to poverty than those who do not exploit forest resources. However, the increase in income due to forestry activities is in general limited, although this increase may be substantial for the poorest households, representing up to 25% of their income. Our results also confirm the global trend that wood-based forest products are more economically rewarding than non-wood forest products. We conclude with some policy implications underlining the potential of the development of forest activities for the betterment of the rural poor in Bhutan.

Domestic use of dirty energy and its effects on human health: empirical evidence from Bhutan

ABSTRACT Use of dirty fuels such as fuelwood, charcoal, cow dung and kerosene is common in developing countries, which adversely affects the health of people living in the dwellings, especially children and women. Using the data from a comprehensive and nationally representative Bhutan Living Standard Survey 2012, the present study examines the effects of dirty fuels on human health and household health expenditure. The result from propensity score-matching approach indicate that households using dirty fuels have a higher incidence of respiratory disease by 2.5–3% compared to households using cleaner fuels. The chances of household contracting tuberculosis are higher for households using dirty fuel in the range of 5–6%. It is also observed that the incidence of eye diseases and health expenditures among households using dirty fuels is higher. Hence the policy should focus on providing access to clean sources of energy to wider population.

A Development Delivery Institution for the Tribal Communities: Experience of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme in India

This article examines the varied impacts of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS) as a development delivery institution for the tribal communities vis-a-vis other social groups across the Indian States, using the framework of new institutional economics. A number of State-specific, socio-economic institutional factors seem to be responsible for these variations. The article therefore suggests institutional reforms and convergence of the development initiatives of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs with the NREGS in order to realise the optimal potential of the scheme, and, in particular, to ensure greater livelihood opportunities for these marginalised groups and their entitlement to productive resources with greater socio-economic and political empowerment.

Understanding the factors that influence household use of clean energy in the Similipal Tiger Reserve, India

Biotic pressure in and around protected areas (PA) is the primary cause of biodiversity loss in many developing countries across the globe. The pressure comes partly from biomass energy dependency in the form of heavy extraction of fuelwood from the forests. Although biomass fuels provide easily accessible and affordable sources of domestic energy to the rural masses, their combustion results in environmental and health†related hazards. The objectives of this paper are to assess the patterns of household energy use in a subsistence forest economy and analyze the factors that influence their energy use choice for cooking and lighting. The paper uses primary data collected randomly from 244 households located in and around the Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR), situated in the eastern Indian state of Odisha. Age of the household head, number of days in wage employment, number of adult males and females in a household, education of the household head and landholding size are found to be the major variables that determine household fuelwood collection sources inside the reserve. Considering household structure as an income indicator, the analysis clearly shows that non†poor households prefer to use clean energy (i.e. solar) for lighting, while poor households tend to use solid fuel. Energy policies for development should be based on the realistic proposition that fuelwood will remain the major source of energy for cooking for substantial proportions of the world’s population. Promotion of public education, social forestry schemes and fuel†efficient improved chulhas should be encouraged in order to reduce household dependence on fuelwood. Moreover, devolving sufficient property rights over forest resources to local communities may help secure their broad†based and active participation in the decision†making process, which may result in a positive change in the attitude of the local people towards biodiversity conservation.

Determinants of household use of wetland resources in West Bengal, India

This paper makes an attempt to identify and analyse the factors that influence the household use of wetlands in West Bengal, India. Three wetlands were selected from three physiographically distinct regions of West Bengal, which are used by local people for multiple purposes. Logit and Tobit models are used for the identification of the factors explaining household dependency on wetland. The results indicate that there is spatial difference in the mode and extent of use of wetland resources across the three wetlands. Households belonging to poor, landless, lower social caste, and low education level are more likely to use wetland resources compared to their counterparts. Households having larger family size are likely to extract bigger amounts of wetland products. However, upper caste households have more access to the wetlands for irrigation. The results indicate that wetland plays a vital role for the livelihood of marginalized sections of the community. Therefore, it is needed to device appropriate policy for equitable distribution of the benefits of the wetlands among different sections of the society.

Rural Nonfarm Employment, Income, and Inequality: Evidence from Bhutan

Using the 2012 Bhutan Living Standard Survey, this paper finds that rural nonfarm activities comprise 60.7% of rural household income in Bhutan and this contribution increases with higher income and education levels. The poor and less educated participate less in the nonfarm sector. When they do, they are self-employed in petty nonfarm activities, which require little investment and little or no skills. Accounting for endogeneity and sample selection issues, we estimate the determinants of participation in nonfarm activities and nonfarm incomes. We find that a households education and labor supply play an important role in accessing more remunerative nonfarm employment. Interestingly, we find that women play an important role in self-employment in nonfarm activities. Decomposition shows that nonfarm income has a disequalizing effect and farm income has an equalizing effect, indicating the need to increase the endowment of poor households to enable them to access the lucrative rural nonfarm sector. Further decomposition reveals that self-employment in petty nonfarm activities reduces inequality.

Democratic Local Institutions for Sustainable Management and Use of Minor Irrigation Systems: Experience of Pani Panchayats in Odisha, India

Generally, public investments in irrigation projects fail to deliver the desired outcomes largely due to inefficient management and use of the assets by the local level institutions. Against this backdrop, the present paper attempts to understand how the Pani Panchayats have performed in sustainable management and use of minor irrigation structures in the Indian state of Odisha. Using primary data and information collected from selected state-funded minor irrigation projects implemented in Cuttack district of the state, the paper finds that the Pani Panchayats, being backed by The Orissa Pani Panchayat Act (2002) and following a democratic decision making process, have been successful in managing the irrigation projects efficiently, especially in respect of pricing and distribution of irrigation water, maintenance of the systems, and their expansion, leading to socially inclusive and sustainable agricultural intensification in the area.

Variety × Nutrient management interaction in greengram for important yield attributes under rainfed red lateritic inceptisol

The effect of five nutrient management practices on the yield and yield attributes, nutrient uptake and rain water use efficiency in four greengram varieties (Dhauli, Pusa-9531, OBGG-52 and Nayagarh Local) in rainfed upland inceptisol with sandy- loam soil was studied in factorial RBD with three replications during Kharif 2009 to 2012. Significant variety × nutrient interaction was observed with respect to seed yield, nodulation and other yield attributing characters. Based on the mean data over four years (2009-2012), highest seed yield of 5.84 q ha-1 was observed in Pusa 9531 with lime+50% organic+ 50% inorganic treatment followed by Dhauli (5.53 q ha-1) with the same nutrient treatment. Highest RWUE was found in Lime + 50% organic + 50% inorganic treatment in all the varieties followed by 100% organic treatment in Dhauli, Pusa-9531 and OBGG-52 but in 50% organic + 50% inorganic treatment in case of Nayagarh Local. The uptake of N, P and K was also observed to be the highest in Lime + 50% organic + 50% inorganic treatment in all the varieties.

Farmers' Access to Certified Wheat Seed and its Effect on Poverty Reduction in Pakistan

In Pakistan, the majority of farmers do not have access to certified seed. The main objective of the current study was to identify and analyze the factors that influence the extent of farmers’ access to certified seed and assess its impact on household income, food security, and poverty levels in Pakistan. For the study, a comprehensive data set was collected through a field survey in major wheat-producing areas of Pakistan in 2012. In total, 367 wheat (Triticum aestivum) growers were interviewed. The data were analyzed by employing econometric models including a propensity score-matching approach, which was used to correct for potential sample selection bias that may arise because of systematic differences between the farmers with access, and those without access to certified wheat seed. Levels of education, ownership of agricultural equipment and related assets, wealth and income levels of farmers were positively associated with the adoption of certified seed. Access to bank credit, distance to and from seed stores and markets also influenced farmers’ decisions to adopt certified seed. The empirical results indicated that farmers who had access to certified wheat seed were able to achieve higher crop yields, higher income, and lower poverty as compared to farmers having no access to certified wheat seed. As wheat is a food-security crop, the household food security levels were quite high. The policy implications of the current study are that farmers’ access to certified wheat seed needs to be increased to increase wheat yield and household income, and to decrease the poverty levels; increasing the wheat yield is of paramount importance to feed the population of Pakistan, which is growing at 1.8% per annum.