Binbin Xue

Complete replication of hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus in a newly developed hepatoma cell line

Significance More than 500 million people are persistently infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and/or hepatitis C virus (HCV) and are at a risk of developing chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. The absence of robust cell culture systems for both viral infections limits the understanding of the virus lifecycle and pathogenesis required for the development of vaccine and antivirals. We have established a novel human hepatoma cell line termed “HLCZ01” that supports the entire lifecycle of both HBV and HCV produced both in cell culture and clinically. This cell line provides a powerful tool for addressing the virus lifecycle and the development of antivirals and vaccines. The absence of a robust cell culture system for hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has limited the analysis of the virus lifecycle and drug discovery. We have established a hepatoma cell line, HLCZ01, the first cell line, to the authors’ knowledge, supporting the entire lifecycle of both HBV and HCV. HBV surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive particles can be observed in the supernatant and the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum of the cells via electron microscopy. Interestingly, HBV and HCV clinical isolates propagate in HLCZ01 cells. Both viruses replicate in the cells without evidence of overt interference. HBV and HCV entry are blocked by antibodies against HBsAg and human CD81, respectively, and the replication of HBV and HCV is inhibited by antivirals. HLCZ01 cells mount an innate immune response to virus infection. The cell line provides a powerful tool for exploring the mechanisms of virus entry and replication and the interaction between host and virus, facilitating the development of novel antiviral agents and vaccines.

Inhibition of Hepatitis C Virus Production by Aptamers against the Core Protein

ABSTRACT Hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein is essential for virus assembly. HCV core protein was expressed and purified. Aptamers against core protein were raised through the selective evolution of ligands by the exponential enrichment approach. Detection of HCV infection by core aptamers and the antiviral activities of aptamers were characterized. The mechanism of their anti-HCV activity was determined. The data showed that selected aptamers against core specifically recognize the recombinant core protein but also can detect serum samples from hepatitis C patients. Aptamers have no effect on HCV RNA replication in the infectious cell culture system. However, the aptamers inhibit the production of infectious virus particles. Beta interferon (IFN-β) and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) are not induced in virally infected hepatocytes by aptamers. Domains I and II of core protein are involved in the inhibition of infectious virus production by the aptamers. V31A within core is the major resistance mutation identified. Further study shows that the aptamers disrupt the localization of core with lipid droplets and NS5A and perturb the association of core protein with viral RNA. The data suggest that aptamers against HCV core protein inhibit infectious virus production by disrupting the localization of core with lipid droplets and NS5A and preventing the association of core protein with viral RNA. The aptamers for core protein may be used to understand the mechanisms of virus assembly. Core-specific aptamers may hold promise for development as early diagnostic reagents and potential therapeutic agents for chronic hepatitis C.

MiR-942 Mediates Hepatitis C Virus-Induced Apoptosis via Regulation of ISG12a

The interaction between hepatitis C virus (HCV) and human hepatic innate antiviral responses is unclear. The aim of this study was to examine how human hepatocytes respond to HCV infection. An infectious HCV isolate, JFH1, was used to infect a newly established human hepatoma cell line HLCZ01. Viral RNA or NS5A protein was examined by real-time PCR or immunofluorescence respectively. The mechanisms of HCV-induced IFN-β and apoptosis were explored. Our data showed that HLCZ01 cells supported the entire HCV lifecycle and IFN-β and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) were induced in HCV-infected cells. Viral infection caused apoptosis of HLCZ01 cells. Silencing of RIG-I, IRF3 or TRAIL inhibited ISG12a expression and blocked apoptosis of viral-infected HLCZ01 cells. Knockdown ISG12a blocked apoptosis of viral-infected cells. MiR-942 is a candidate negative regulator of ISG12a predicted by bioinformatics search. Moreover, HCV infection decreased miR-942 expression in HLCZ01 cells and miR-942 was inversely correlated with ISG12a expression in both HCV-infected cells and liver biopsies. MiR-942 forced expression in HLCZ01 cells decreased ISG12a expression and subsequently suppressed apoptosis triggered by HCV infection. Conversely, silencing of miR-942 expression by anti-miR-942 increased ISG12a expression and enhanced apoptosis in HCV-infected cells. Induction of Noxa by HCV infection contributed to ISG12a-mediated apoptosis. All the data indicated that innate host response is intact in HCV-infected hepatocytes. MiR-942 regulates HCV-induced apoptosis of human hepatocytes by targeting ISG12a. Our study provides a novel mechanism by which human hepatocytes respond to HCV infection.

Inhibition of hepatitis C virus infection by DNA aptamer against NS2 protein.

NS2 protein is essential for hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication. NS2 protein was expressed and purified. Aptamers against NS2 protein were raised and antiviral effects of the aptamers were examined. The molecular mechanism through which the aptamers exert their anti-HCV activity was investigated. The data showed that aptamer NS2-3 inhibited HCV RNA replication in replicon cell line and infectious HCV cell culture system. NS2-3 and another aptamer NS2-2 were demonstrated to inhibit infectious virus production without cytotoxicity in vitro. They did not affect hepatitis B virus replication. Interferon beta (IFN-β) and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) were not induced by the aptamers in HCV-infected hepatocytes. Furthermore, our study showed that N-terminal region of NS2 protein is involved in the inhibition of HCV infection by NS2-2. I861T within NS2 is the major resistance mutation identified. Aptamer NS2-2 disrupts the interaction of NS2 with NS5A protein. The data suggest that NS2-2 aptamer against NS2 protein exerts its antiviral effects through binding to the N-terminal of NS2 and disrupting the interaction of NS2 with NS5A protein. NS2-specific aptamer is the first NS2 inhibitor and can be used to understand the mechanisms of virus replication and assembly. It may be served as attractive candidates for inclusion in the future HCV direct-acting antiviral combination therapies.

2-Octynoic Acid Inhibits Hepatitis C Virus Infection through Activation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase

Many chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients with current therapy do not clear the virus. It is necessary to find novel treatments. The effect of 2-octynoic acid (2-OA) on HCV infection in human hepatocytes was examined. The mechanism of 2-OA antiviral activity was explored. Our data showed that 2-OA abrogated lipid accumulation in HCV replicon cells and virus-infected hepatocytes. It suppressed HCV RNA replication and infectious virus production with no cytotoxicity to the host cells. 2-OA did not affect hepatitis B virus replication in HepG2.2.15 cells derived from HepG2 cells transfected with full genome of HBV. Further study demonstrated that 2-OA activated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and inhibited acetyl-CoA carboxylase in viral-infected cells. Compound C, a specific inhibitor of AMPK, inhibited AMPK activity and reversed the reduction of intracellular lipid accumulation and the antiviral effect of 2-OA. Knockdown of AMPK expression by RNA interference abolished the activation of AMPK by 2-OA and blocked 2-OA antiviral activity. Interestingly, 2-OA induced interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) and inhibited microRNA-122 (miR-122) expression in virus-infected hepatocytes. MiR-122 overexpression reversed the antiviral effect of 2-OA. Furthermore, knockdown of AMPK expression reversed both the induction of ISGs and suppression of miR-122 by 2-OA, implying that activated AMPK induces the intracellular innate response through the induction of ISGs and inhibiting miR-122 expression. 2-OA inhibits HCV infection through regulation of innate immune response by activated AMPK. These findings reveal a novel mechanism by which active AMPK inhibits HCV infection. 2-OA and its derivatives hold promise for novel drug development for chronic hepatitis C.

ISG12a Restricts Hepatitis C Virus Infection through the Ubiquitination-Dependent Degradation Pathway

ABSTRACT Interferons (IFNs) restrict various kinds of viral infection via induction of hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), while the functions of the majority of ISGs are broadly unclear. Here, we show that a high-IFN-inducible gene, ISG12a (also known as IFI27), exhibits a nonapoptotic antiviral effect on hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Viral NS5A protein is targeted specifically by ISG12a, which mediates NS5A degradation via a ubiquitination-dependent proteasomal pathway. K374R mutation in NS5A domain III abrogates ISG12a-induced ubiquitination and degradation of NS5A. S-phase kinase-associated protein 2 (SKP2) is identified as an ubiquitin E3 ligase for NS5A. ISG12a functions as a crucial adaptor that promotes SKP2 to interact with and degrade viral protein. Moreover, the antiviral effect of ISG12a is dependent on the E3 ligase activity of SKP2. These findings uncover an intriguing mechanism by which ISG12a restricts viral infection and provide clues for understanding the actions of innate immunity. IMPORTANCE Upon virus invasion, IFNs induce numerous ISGs to control viral spread, while the functions of the majority of ISGs are broadly unclear. The present study shows a novel antiviral mechanism of ISGs and elucidated that ISG12a recruits an E3 ligase, SKP2, for ubiquitination and degradation of viral protein and restricts viral infection. These findings provide important insights into exploring the working principles of innate immunity.

Inhibition of hepatitis C virus infection by NS5A-specific aptamer

To increase efficacy of hepatitis C treatment, future regiments will incorporate multiple direct-acting antiviral drugs. HCV NS5A protein was expressed and purified. Aptamers against NS5A were screened and obtained by the selective evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment approach and the antiviral actions of the aptamers were tested. The mechanisms through which the aptamers exert their antiviral activity were explored. The aptamers NS5A-4 and NS5A-5 inhibit HCV RNA replication and infectious virus production without causing cytotoxicity in human hepatocytes. The aptamers do not affect hepatitis B virus replication in HepG2.2.15 cells. Interferon beta (IFN-β) and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) are not induced by the aptamers in HCV-infected hepatocytes. Further study shows that domain I and domain III of NS5A protein are involved in the suppression of HCV RNA replication and infectious virus production by NS5A-4. Y2105H within NS5A is the major resistance mutation identified. NS5A aptamer disrupts the interaction of NS5A with core protein. The data suggest that the aptamers against NS5A protein may exert antiviral effects through inhibiting viral RNA replication, preventing the interaction of NS5A with core protein. Aptamers for NS5A may be used to understand the mechanisms of virus replication and assembly and served as potential therapeutic agents for hepatitis C.

HMGB1 Promotes Hepatitis C Virus Replication by Interaction with Stem-Loop 4 in the Viral 5′ Untranslated Region

ABSTRACT High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein is a highly conserved nuclear protein involved in multiple human diseases, including infectious diseases, immune disorders, metabolic disorders, and cancer. HMGB1 is comprised of two tandem HMG boxes (the A box and the B box) containing DNA-binding domains and an acidic C-terminal peptide. It has been reported that HMGB1 enhances viral replication by binding to viral proteins. However, its role in hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication is unknown. Here, we show that HMGB1 promoted HCV replication but had no effect on HCV translation. RNA immunoprecipitation experiments indicated that the positive strand, not the negative strand, of HCV RNA interacted with HMGB1. HCV infection triggered HMGB1 protein translocation from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, in which it interacted with the HCV genome. Moreover, the A box of HMGB1 is the pivotal domain to interact with stem-loop 4 (SL4) of the HCV 5′ untranslated region. Deletion of the HMGB1 A box abrogated the enhancement of HCV replication by HMGB1. Our data suggested that HMGB1 serves as a proviral factor of HCV to facilitate viral replication in hepatocytes by interaction with the HCV genome. IMPORTANCE Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major global health threat, affecting more than 170 million people infection worldwide. These patients are at high risk of developing severe liver diseases such as chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Currently, no vaccine is available. Many host factors may be implicated in the pathogenesis of HCV-related diseases. In this study, we found a novel HCV RNA-binding protein, HMGB1, that promotes HCV RNA replication. Moreover, SL4 in the 5′ untranslated region of the HCV genome is the key region for HMGB1 binding, and the A box of HMGB1 protein is the functional domain to interact with HCV RNA and enhance viral replication. HMGB1 appears to play an important role in HCV-related diseases, and further investigation is warranted to elucidate the specific actions of HMGB1 in HCV pathogenesis.

Msi1 confers resistance to TRAIL by activating ERK in liver cancer cells

To investigate TRAIL resistance mechanisms in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), we isolated a stable TRAIL‐resistant sub‐population of the HCC cell line LH86, designated LH86‐TR. Differential activation of AKT was not responsible for acquisition of TRAIL resistance. Cells with both congenital and acquired resistance to TRAIL exhibited increased Msi1 expression, which conferred TRAIL resistance by activating ERK. Forced expression of Msi1 decreased the sensitivity of HCC cells to TRAIL both in vitro and in vivo. Conversely, shRNA‐mediated depletion of Msi1 enhanced TRAIL efficacy. SiRNA‐mediated depletion of ERK overcame TRAIL resistance. Hence, we conclude that Msi1 is a mediator of TRAIL resistance in HCC cells.

NLRX1 mediates MAVS degradation to attenuate the hepatitis C virus-induced innate immune response through PCBP2

ABSTRACT Activation of innate immunity is essential for host cells to restrict the spread of invading viruses and other pathogens. However, attenuation or termination of signaling is also necessary for preventing immune-mediated tissue damage and spontaneous autoimmunity. Here, we identify nucleotide binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor X1 (NLRX1) as a negative regulator of the mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS)-mediated signaling pathway during hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. The depletion of NLRX1 enhances the HCV-triggered activation of interferon (IFN) signaling and causes the suppression of HCV propagation in hepatocytes. NLRX1, a HCV-inducible protein, interacts with MAVS and mediates the K48-linked polyubiquitination and subsequent degradation of MAVS via the proteasomal pathway. Moreover, poly(rC) binding protein 2 (PCBP2) interacts with NLRX1 to participate in the NLRX1-induced degradation of MAVS and the inhibition of antiviral responses during HCV infection. Mutagenic analyses further revealed that the NOD of NLRX1 is essential for NLRX1 to interact with PCBP2 and subsequently induce MAVS degradation. Our study unlocks a key mechanism of the fine-tuning of innate immunity by which NLRX1 restrains the retinoic acid-inducible gene I-like receptor (RLR)-MAVS signaling cascade by recruiting PCBP2 to MAVS for inducing MAVS degradation through the proteasomal pathway. NLRX1, a negative regulator of innate immunity, is a pivotal host factor for HCV to establish persistent infection. IMPORTANCE Innate immunity needs to be tightly regulated to maximize the antiviral response and minimize immune-mediated pathology, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. In this study, we report that NLRX1 is a proviral host factor for HCV infection and functions as a negative regulator of the HCV-triggered innate immune response. NLRX1 recruits PCBP2 to MAVS and induces the K48-linked polyubiquitination and degradation of MAVS, leading to the negative regulation of the IFN signaling pathway and promoting HCV infection. Overall, this study provides intriguing insights into how innate immunity is regulated during viral infection.