Björn Cederström

Detective quantum efficiency dependence on x‐ray energy weighting in mammography

An evaluation of the dependence of detective quantum efficiency (DQE) on the incident energy spectrum has been made for mammography. The DQE dependence on the energy spectrum has been evaluated for energy-integrating detectors, photon-counting detectors, and detectors that measure the energy of each photon. To isolate the effect of the x-ray energy spectrum the detector has been assumed to be ideal, i.e., all noise sources are assumed to be zero except for quantum fluctuations. The result shows that the improvement in DQE, if the energy-integrating detector is compared to a single-photon counting detector, is of the order of 10%. Comparing the energy-integrating detector and the detector measuring the energy for each photon the improvement is around 30% using a molybdenum anode spectrum typical in mammography. It is shown that the optimal weight factors to combine the data in the case the energy is measured are very well approximated if the weight factors are proportional to E(-3). Another conclusion is that in calculating the DQE, a detector should be compared to one that uses ideal energy weighting for each photon since this provides the best signal-to-noise ratio. This has generally been neglected in the literature.

Energy resolution of a photon-counting silicon strip detector

A photon-counting silicon strip detector with two energy thresholds was investigated for spectral X-ray imaging in a mammography system. Preliminary studies already indicate clinical benefit of the ...

Physical characterization of a scanning photon counting digital mammography system based on Si-strip detectors

The physical performance of a scanning multislit full field digital mammography system was determined using basic image quality parameters. The system employs a direct detection detector comprised of linear silicon strip sensors in an edge-on geometry connected to photon counting electronics. The pixel size is 50 microm and the field of view 24 x 26 cm2. The performance was quantified using the presampled modulation transfer function, the normalized noise power spectrum and the detective quantum efficiency (DQE). Compared to conventional DQE methods, the scanning geometry with its intrinsic scatter rejection poses additional requirements on the measurement setup, which are investigated in this work. The DQE of the photon counting system was found to be independent of the dose level to the detector in the 7.6-206 microGy range. The peak DQE was 72% and 73% in the scan and slit direction, respectively, measured with a 28 kV W-0.5 mm Al anode-filter combination with an added 2 mm Al filtration.

Scatter rejection in multislit digital mammography

The scatter to primary ratio (SPR) was measured on a scanning multislit full-field digital mammography system for different thickness of breast equivalent material and different tube voltages. Scatter within the detector was measured separately and was found to be the major source of scatter in the assembly. Measured total SPRs below 6% are reported for breast range 3-7 cm. The performance of the multislit assembly is compared to other imaging geometries with different scatter rejection schemes by using the scatter detective quantum efficiency.

Evaluation of a photon counting X-ray imaging system

A digital imaging system has been developed for mammography using silicon strip detectors operated in a pulse-counting mode and configured in a scanned slit geometry. Almost 100% of the photons are absorbed in the sensor, the scatter rejection is very efficient and the image formation is nearly optimal since each X-ray is processed individually. The result is a very dose-efficient system. In this paper we present measurements that verify that the performance of the read-out electronics is sufficient to count photons at high rates with high quantum efficiency (QE) and a charge collection efficiency (CCE) that does not limit the dose efficiency. The spatial resolution of the system was measured to provide a modulation transfer function (MTF) of approximately 0.5 at a spatial frequency 10 1p/mm. Images of a mammography phantom were recorded experimentally to test overall system performance.

Contrast-enhanced spectral mammography with a photon-counting detector

PURPOSE Spectral imaging is a method in medical x-ray imaging to extract information about the object constituents by the material-specific energy dependence of x-ray attenuation. The authors have investigated a photon-counting spectral imaging system with two energy bins for contrast-enhanced mammography. System optimization and the potential benefit compared to conventional non-energy-resolved absorption imaging was studied. METHODS A framework for system characterization was set up that included quantum and anatomical noise and a theoretical model of the system was benchmarked to phantom measurements. RESULTS Optimal combination of the energy-resolved images corresponded approximately to minimization of the anatomical noise, which is commonly referred to as energy subtraction. In that case, an ideal-observer detectability index could be improved close to 50% compared to absorption imaging in the phantom study. Optimization with respect to the signal-to-quantum-noise ratio, commonly referred to as energy weighting, yielded only a minute improvement. In a simulation of a clinically more realistic case, spectral imaging was predicted to perform approximately 30% better than absorption imaging for an average glandularity breast with an average level of anatomical noise. For dense breast tissue and a high level of anatomical noise, however, a rise in detectability by a factor of 6 was predicted. Another approximately 70%-90% improvement was found to be within reach for an optimized system. CONCLUSIONS Contrast-enhanced spectral mammography is feasible and beneficial with the current system, and there is room for additional improvements. Inclusion of anatomical noise is essential for optimizing spectral imaging systems.

Focusing hard X-rays with old LPs

We have found that two sections cut from a vinyl long-playing record can form a spherical aberration-free refractive lens for hard X-rays. Our manufactured saw-tooth refractive lens has a focal length of 22 cm for 23-keV X-rays. The low cost and short focal length of this lens make it feasible for use in small-scale experiments with conventional X-ray tubes.

High-energy X-ray optics with silicon saw-tooth refractive lenses.

Silicon saw-tooth refractive lenses have been in successful use for vertical focusing and collimation of high-energy X-rays (50-100 keV) at the 1-ID undulator beamline of the Advanced Photon Source. In addition to presenting an effectively parabolic thickness profile, as required for aberration-free refractive optics, these devices allow high transmission and continuous tunability in photon energy and focal length. Furthermore, the use of a single-crystal material (i.e. Si) minimizes small-angle scattering background. The focusing performance of such saw-tooth lenses, used in conjunction with the 1-ID beamlines bent double-Laue monochromator, is presented for both short ( approximately 1:0.02) and long ( approximately 1:0.6) focal-length geometries, giving line-foci in the 2 microm-25 microm width range with 81 keV X-rays. In addition, a compound focusing scheme was tested whereby the radiation intercepted by a distant short-focal-length lens is increased by having it receive a collimated beam from a nearer (upstream) lens. The collimation capabilities of Si saw-tooth lenses are also exploited to deliver enhanced throughput of a subsequently placed small-angular-acceptance high-energy-resolution post-monochromator in the 50-80 keV range. The successful use of such lenses in all these configurations establishes an important detail, that the pre-monochromator, despite being comprised of vertically reflecting bent Laue geometry crystals, can be brilliance-preserving to a very high degree.

Multi-prism x-ray lens

Refractive x-ray lenses with a triangular surface profile have been used to focus a synchrotron beam to sub-μm line width. These lenses are free from spherical aberration and work in analogy with one-dimensional focusing parabolic compound refractive lenses. However, the focal length can be easily varied by changing the gap between the two jaws. Silicon lenses were fabricated by wet anisotropic etching, and epoxy replicas were molded from the silicon masters. The lenses provided intensity gains up to a factor of 32 and the smallest focal line width was 0.87 μm. The simplified geometry and associated fabrication technique open possibilities for low-Z materials such as beryllium, which should greatly enhance the performance of refractive x-ray optics.

A photon-counting detector for dual-energy breast tomosynthesis

We present the first evaluation of a recently developed silicon-strip detector for photon-counting dual-energy breast tomosynthesis. The detector is well suited for tomosynthesis with high dose efficiency and intrinsic scatter rejection. A method was developed for measuring the spatial resolution of a system based on the detector in terms of the three-dimensional modulation transfer function (MTF). The measurements agreed well with theoretical expectations, and it was seen that depth resolution was won at the cost of a slightly decreased lateral resolution. This may be a justifiable trade-off as clinical images acquired with the system indicate improved conspicuity of breast lesions. The photon-counting detector enables dual-energy subtraction imaging with electronic spectrumsplitting. This improved the detectability of iodine in phantom measurements, and the detector was found to be stable over typical clinical acquisition times. A model of the energy resolution showed that further improvements are within reach by optimization of the detector.