Bjørn L. Basberg

Foreign patenting in the U.S. as a technology indicator: The case of Norway

Abstract Foreign patenting in the U.S. has been considered to be a useful technology indicator in comparisons between countries. In order to shed light on this topic, this paper will try to explain foreign patenting in the U.S. by way of data for one country - Norway. A crucial question is what role is played by exports in explaining the foreign patent activity. Is the U.S. patenting just an indicator of the export performance, or is it the other way around; that technology - measured by foreign patent activity - is an important trade explanatory variable. The first part of this paper deals with the relationship between Norwegian U.S. patenting and export to the U.S. by way of time-series analysis on data from 1883 to 1980. Then some more detailed analysis are done on industry-level data from 1920 and from 1960–1980. An hypothesis is further tested for the possible relationship between foreign U.S. patenting and the international business-cycles. Finally a detailed but tentative analysis is done on firm-level data for the years 1969–1980. The results lend partial support to the assumption that foreign U.S. patent activity reflects innovative activity in the country where the patents originated. A major advantage in using foreign patenting in the U.S. as a technology indicator, is that this type of data in general seems to be of a higher quality than domestic patent data.

Technological change in the Norwegian whaling industry: A case-study in the use of patent-statistics as a technology indicator☆

Abstract This paper presents an example of the use of patent statistics as a technology indicator in one industry. The first part deals with the problem of interpretation. Through examination of several other partial technology indicators, it is concluded that at least in this industry, patent statistics provide a reliable indicator, not only for the timing of inventions, but for the timing of innovations and diffusion as well. The reason is that the intervals between the stages in the innovation process are very short. This contradicts evidence from many other industries, and it is therefore emphasized that generalizations are unwarranted. The second part of this paper deals with the possible causes of technological change in Norwegian whaling. The methodology is inspired by J. Schmooklers work. Thus, the patents are correlated with other indicators of economic development in the industry. But while Schmooklers view is that the patent activity is determined by social demand and economic growth, the conclusions for the Norwegian whaling industry point in the opposite direction: the technological transformation that took place during the 1920s and early 1930s was forced upon the firms in their efforts to cut costs, which was achieved by rationalizing production and catching methods in line with a downward price trend for whale oil.

A Crisis that Never Came: The Decline of the European Antarctic Whaling Industry in the 1950s and 60s

The paper analyses the decline and final close down of the European Antarctic whaling industry in the 1950s and -60s. This industry had been led by British and Norwegian companies, which were now challenged by Japan and Soviet Union that completely took over Antarctic whaling for the next decades. The decline most severely affected Norway where the whaling industry was relatively more important than in any other country. The decline was also disproportionally felt in Norway because the country provided crew and equipment to many foreign whaling companies. The paper will therefore have a special focus on the Norwegian industry and how the challenges were faced there. The analysis reveals that the decline did not develop into a crisis for the companies involved or in the wider economy. One main explanation was that business cycles in shipping and in the general economy were very favourable during the years when the whaling industry was wound up.

Perspectives on the economic history of the Antarctic region

This paper starts out by indicating how the economic history of the Antarctic could be conceptualized, given the peculiarities of the continent and the region (no permanent population, no sovereignty in a traditional sense, extreme remoteness, rigorous climate etc.). Second, it describes the main industries throughout Antarctic history. Third, it examines the quantitative data available on economic activity in the region, suggests how we should proceed to analyse the economic activity throughout history, and finally ask the question; Is it possible to (re)construct a historical ‘national product’ of the Antarctica?

The first Antarctic whaling season of Admiralen (1905–1906): the diary of Alexander Lange

The first factory ship of the so-called modern era of Antarctic whaling was Admiralen, arriving together with two smaller catcher boats in the South Shetland Islands in January 1906, after a period of whaling in the Falkland Islands. The expedition leader was Alexander Lange, a Norwegian whaler with a long experience from whaling in northern Norway and Spitsbergen. He kept a diary for a considerable period and this covered several whaling voyages. The one dealing with the pioneer Antarctic season of 1905-1906 has been translated from Norwegian into English and is presented here with an introduction that places the expedition into its wider context.

The 19th Century Antarctic Sealing Industry: Sources, Data and Economic Significance

Sealing was the first exploitative industry in the Antarctic region. Throughout the 19th century it was characterized by large fluctuations in harvests and shifts in hunting grounds as seals were almost exterminated in some locations. The paper reviews the historical literature on this industry. In particular it reviews sources and data that relate the economic importance. So far, no one has succeeded in indicating the aggregate economic value of the industry. The main aim, therefore, is to explore new data, especially on market prices and catches that will enable us to assess more accurately the significance of the industry.

The economic significance of the 19th century Antarctic sealing industry

Sealing was the first exploitative industry in the Antarctic region. Throughout the 19th century it was characterised by large fluctuations in catches and shifts in hunting grounds as seals were almost exterminated in several locations. This paper reviews the historical literature on this industry. In particular it reviews sources and data that relate to its economic importance. So far, no one has succeeded in indicating the aggregate economic value of the industry. The main aim, therefore, is to investigate new data, especially on market prices that will enable a more accurate assessment of the significance of the industry.

Patenting and Early Industrialization in Norway, 1860–1914. Was there a Linkage?

Abstract The Norwegian patent system was formally established in 1839. For many years the interest in the patent institution and in patenting was moderate. The first real increase in patenting occurred in the 1870s and 80s. The paper will examine and analyse the development in patenting, and the patent institution (legislation, administration) from about this period until 1914. An explicit focus of the analysis is the relationship between patenting and industrialization. There has been an issue among Norwegian economic historians if or when there was an industrial breakthrough in Norway. So far, patents, patent policy and the role of the patent institution have not been related to this question. This paper will therefore investigate in which way the system was developed to stimulate modernization and industrialization.

Patents, innovations and technological development in Norwegian whaling, 1880–1968: A case-study of validity problems in the use of patent statistics as indicators of innovation and technological change

Taking whaling as an example the article analyses the problems of validity that arise when patent statistics are used as an indicator of technological change in a particular industry. The results show that in this industry the patent statistics are a reliable indicator of technological development.

Amateur or professional? A new look at nineteenth-century patentees in Norway

The paper analyses Norwegian nineteenth-century patentees. A special focus is on the affiliation or relationship of patentees to the manufacturing industries, business and the wider economy. A central question is whether the inventors were what might be called ‘amateurs’ working independently or ‘professionals’ working closer to firms or institutions. The main finding is that even the individual patentees, who comprised the majority of all patentees, had strong associations with industry, and the distinction between ‘professionals’ and ‘amateurs’ is not very useful.