Bob McKercher

A chaos approach to tourism

Abstract Chaos theory and its companion model, complexity theory, are emerging as legitimate schools of thought to describe how complex systems function. This paper argues that tourism essentially functions as a chaotic, non-linear, non-deterministic system. As such, existing tourism models fail to explain fully the complex relationships that exist between and among the various elements that constitute a tourism system. The paper concludes by proposing an alternative model of tourism based on the principles of chaos theory that incorporates the nine elements that combine to explain how tourism functions.

Exploration Versus Acquisition: A Comparison of First-Time and Repeat Visitors

This article reports on a study of the motives for visiting and intended activities of first-time and repeat pleasure tourists to Hong Kong. The study revealed significant differences in motivation that resulted in the intention to participate in different activities. First-time visitors were motivated to visit Hong Kong to explore, while repeat visitors came to consume. First-time visitors intended to participate in a wide range of geographically dispersed activities, while repeat visitors intended to shop, dine, and spend time with family and friends.

Some Fundamental Truths About Tourism: Understanding Tourism's Social and Environmental Impacts

Abstract Tourisms effects on the social, cultural and physical environments in which it operates are well documented. Yet, it appears that little research has been conducted examining the underlying reasons why such impacts appear to be inevitable. This paper argues that a number of structural realities or ‘fundamental truths’ about tourism exist that explain why adverse impacts are felt, regardless of the type of tourism activity. Eight such truths are examined. They are: (1) As an industrial activity, tourism consumes resources, creates waste and has specific infrastructure needs. (2) As a consumer of resources, it has the ability to over consume resources. (3) Tourism, as a resource dependent industry must compete for scarce resources to ensure its survival. (4) Tourism is a private sector dominated industry, with investment decisions being based predominantly on profit maximisation. (5) Tourism is a multi-faceted industry, and as such, it is almost impossible to control. (6) Tourists are consumers, n...

Achieving voluntary reductions in the carbon footprint of tourism and climate change

This study examines attitudes to tourism and climate change among residents of Hong Kong and evaluates their willingness to voluntarily modify travel behaviours to reduce environmental impacts. Previous studies on environmental behavioural change identified a significant gap between awareness and action, with some studies even suggesting that the most aware individuals are unlikely to change their behaviours. Similar findings were noted in this study. Cluster analysis identified four cohorts of tourists, ranging from the regular international tourist to the least travel active. The regular international tourist group was most aware of global warming and climate change, but least willing to alter its travel behaviour. By contrast, less travel active tourists seem most willing to travel less. The paper concludes that government intervention may be required to create meaningful behavioural change in travel patterns.

Travel agents as facilitators or inhibitors of travel: perceptions of people with disabilities.

Travel agents remain the primary source for people with disabilities to purchase travel products. How effectively travel agents perform this task has a direct impact on the ability of people with disabilities to travel. A good travel agent can facilitate travel, while a poor one creates another obstacle to participation in travel by people with disabilities. This paper examines the perception of people with disabilities towards the effectiveness of travel agents in Hong Kong. For the most part, respondents suggest that travel agents are largely deficient in catering to the needs of this specialist market. Two causes were identified: attitudinal and structural. Travel agents are largely ignorant of the needs of people with disabilities, which leads to overt or subtle discrimination. In addition, the financial realities of the retail travel sector in Hong Kong force agents to push high commission, easy to book packaged tours that may not be suitable for the tourist with a disability.

Distance Decay and the Impact of Effective Tourism Exclusion Zones on International Travel Flows

This article examines the decaying effect of distance decay in outbound air travel from Hong Kong. Distance decay theory predicts that demand will peak at some distance relatively close to a source market and then decline exponentially as distance increases. The standard distance decay relationship is predicated on the assumption of a uniform distribution of tourism products over space. However, as discussed in the article, supply is not distributed evenly, with large areas representing Effective Tourism Exclusion Zones (ETEZ). The effect of these tourism exclusion zones is to distort the standard distance decay curve, accelerating decay rates between the source markets and the inner boundary of the ETEZ and producing a concentration of higher demand at points beyond its outer boundary. In addition, for the Hong Kong market, the ETEZ formed a behavioral barrier between short haul and long travel behavior patterns.

Movement patterns of tourists within a destination.

Abstract This paper reports on a study analysing the movements of tourists within an urban destination. A total of 78 discrete movement patterns was identified, which can be categorized into 11 movement styles. Data were analysed using GIS software. The large number of movement patterns is a reflection of the interaction of six factors: territoriality, the number of journeys made per day, the number of stops made per journey, participation in a commercial day tour, participation in extra-destination travel and observed patterns of multi-stop journeys. The 11 movement styles were influenced by territoriality and intensity of consumption.

Are Short Duration Cultural Festivals Tourist Attractions

This paper examines the value of short duration cultural festivals as tourist attractions, with special emphasis on their role in attracting and retaining international tourists. The study examined visitors to three festivals held in Hong Kong during spring 2004. Relatively few tourists attended these events. Moreover, most were unaware of the festivals prior to arrival and about 80% made the decision to participate only when in the destination. Tourism attraction systems’ theory reinforces the importance of awareness building prior to departure and suggests that in-destination awareness creation is ineffective in generating demand for these types of events, especially among short stay tourists. However, the costs associated with creating awareness in generating regions may not produce sufficiently valuable results, given the small window of opportunity for participation and the specialist nature of the market.

Trip destinations, gateways and itineraries: the example of Hong Kong

Abstract Trip itinerary data present analytical problems because of the great diversity of routes that travelers follow and the varying significance of destinations along those routes. Most of the models that have been proposed to deal with this complexity have focused either on the total number of travelers from one country to another, or on the overall pattern of entire trips. An alternative and complementary approach is to examine the relative location of a destination within the larger itinerary pattern. Depending on their location within the overall trip itinerary, places can exhibit characteristics of one or more destination types: Single Destination, Gateway Destination, Egress Destination, Touring Destination, or Hub Destination. Data collected on international air travelers to Hong Kong exhibited the first four of these five patterns. Taiwan and Singapore residents primarily used Hong Kong as a Single Destination for short break shopping holidays and for business. US and Australian residents were the most likely to use Hong Kong as a trip Gateway and as a Touring Destination, especially as the Gateway for a trip to China, but Hong Kong also served as a Gateway for trips to destinations in East and Southeast Asia and, for US residents, to Australia. Residents of China were more likely to use Hong Kong as a trip Egress Destination than were others. Hong Kong has traditionally considered itself primarily as a ‘gateway to China’ and an ‘Asian travel hub’. Hong Kong, and other destinations, could benefit from being more aware of their role as an Egress Destination and of their relationships with destinations that travelers visit before and after their arrival.

Food Tourism as a Viable Market Segment: It's All How You Cook the Numbers!

This study examines whether food is a special interest or mainstream tourism product. Much of the research on special interest tourism examines the activity in isolation of the broader suite of products available in the destination mix. Such a myopic approach may produce impressive looking numbers, but may not define viable market segments. Instead, based on their research findings, the authors argue that a more holistic approach is required to examine food tourism within the context of other products in the destination to determine its value. Overall, this study suggests that consuming food may be a ubiquitous activity for most visitors to sophisticated urban destinations and may not be representative of a specialist segment.