Bobby Hoffman

Conceptions of Efficiency: Applications in Learning and Problem Solving

The purpose of this article is to clarify conceptions, definitions, and applications of learning and problem-solving efficiency. Conceptions of efficiency vary within the field of educational psychology, and there is little consensus as to how to define, measure, and interpret the efficiency construct. We compare three diverse models that differ in computation (i.e., how efficiency scores are calculated), measurement (i.e., what variables are used to calculate an efficiency score), and application (i.e., under what research and instructional contexts each model should be used). Strengths and weaknesses of each model are discussed. The article provides a definition of the underlying construct assessed by each model and considers the most plausible interpretation of each type of efficiency score. Recommendations are provided for using these conceptions in future research, and especially the use of multiple measures in the same study.

The Effect of Single-Sex Instruction in a Large, Urban, At-Risk High School

The authors used mixed methods to evaluate over 2 years the effectiveness of single-sex instruction (SSI) on achievement outcomes, instructional practices, teacher efficacy, student behaviors, and classroom culture in an urban, at-risk high school primarily composed of individuals from disadvantaged populations. Students grouped according to sex in algebra and English classes were compared with coeducational students by assessment of course grades, standardized test scores, classroom observations, surveys, teacher interviews, and a focus group discussion. Achievement results associated with SSI were inconsistent, with gains shifting between groups. The authors observed gains in algebra achievement for SSI in Year 1 but not in Year 2. Differences in English achievement were not observed between SSI and coeducational groups. Standardized test results indicated superior performance for coeducational students. SSI provided a supportive environment for girls, inducing greater participation and academic risk-taking. Teachers believed that the SSI environment was conducive to learning, whereas students denounced both the social and the academic benefits of SSI.

The Effects of Informational Complexity and Working Memory on Problem-Solving Efficiency

This study investigated the influence of informational complexity and working memory capacity on problem-solving efficiency. We examined two predictions of thesituational efficiency hypothesis, which states that the efficiency of problem solving varies as a function of situational constraints. One prediction is that informational complexity affects problem-solving efficiency. A second prediction is that working memory capacity affects problem-solving efficiency. Students completed a working memory task and solved abstract and concrete syllogisms. Participants solved abstract syllogisms more accurately than concrete syllogisms and spent more time solving abstract syllogisms. Thus participants demonstrated greater problem-solving efficiency when solving concrete syllogisms. Results indicate that there is a trade-off between problem-solving accuracy and problem-solving time when information differs with respect to informational complexity, a phenomenon we refer to as theefficiency paradox. Working memory capacity did not affect accuracy or efficiency. The results support the conclusion that problem-solving efficiency is situational and a function of the complexity of information. Educational implications and directions for future research are suggested.

Introducing the cultural variables in school-based substance abuse prevention

Abstract Adolescent substance abuse is a global problem which educators have sought to address through school-based preventive education. Prior research suggests that cultural sensitivity may mediate program success; however the ideal program composition remains unclear. Thus, the purpose of this review is to identify the cultural variables used in the adaptation of substance abuse prevention programs and to evaluate whether the inclusion of such variables enhance program outcomes. We reviewed 58 articles describing study design, results and the cultural variables involved. Cultural variables were categorized as surface-level variables (e.g. language, character names) and deep-level variables (e.g. normative beliefs, motivational factors). Empirical studies implied that variations in language, communication preferences, level of individualism, family orientation, religiosity, norms regarding substance use, gender, ethnic identity and environmental accessibility were possibly related to overall program success. Recommendations for future research and program modifications are discussed.

A rose by any other name: The influence of culture on motivated behavior

This chapter transports the reader on an ethereal journey, not to faraway lands of mystery and intrigue but to a place where values, beliefs, and the meaning of knowledge are experienced only through the collective minds of the possessors. Culture, a shared system of values and customs that guide the behavior of individuals and groups, is a motivational enigma. As Juliet once debated with her lover Romeo, “the names of things do not matter, only what things are.” Many times behavioral meaning is surreptitious and obscured, not easily known or understood by the uninformed beholder. Common enactments, such displays of individualism, emotion, language, and risk, are the very soul of our existence and may vary dramatically across cultures. This chapter unravels the nuances of culture and illuminates why similar behaviors among cultures may have completely divergent and unique motivational meaning.

Location, location, location: Creating and implementing context-specific interventions

This chapter shifts focus from the identification of empirically supported principles of motivational science to an emphasis on cultivating adaptive motivation in others. Transforming scientific evidence into practical and useful operational strategies that promote motivational growth requires clear recognition of the individual differences in performers and the realization that the suitability of intervention strategies are based, in part, on the context of application. This chapter explores the nature of strategies aligned with specific performance cultures and describes best practices to enhance adaptive motivation in classrooms, the workplace, athletics and the performing arts. This chapter closes with a consideration of which motivational strategies are most useful to promote sound instructional design and to facilitate online learning.

Underpinnings: Five foundational doctrines of motivational science

This chapter introduces the reader to the humanistic orientation and profile approach used to study motivated behavior throughout the text. First, three personal vignettes are presented to behaviorally illustrate several important concepts related to motivation. Next, readers will uncover five foundational principles that define how motivation is described and expressed. Some common misconceptions about motivation are revealed and clarified. Additionally, the chapter illuminates one of the major themes of the text: self-awareness. The chapter concludes with the completion of a self-assessment designed to determine the reader’s overall knowledge of motivation and specifically assess some of the principles covered later in the text.

No place to hide: Motivation and emotion

This chapter explores the derivatives, dynamics, and consequences of the often intangible experience prompted by emotion, which, at any given moment, may be a dominant and immutable force that radically alters behavioral readiness, determination, and effort intensity. Globally, emotional responses to external events may trigger conflict, risk lives, destroy cultures, or build dynasties. Individually, subjective reactions to encounters can radically alter moods and dispositions, limiting or enabling our capabilities and accomplishments. Invariably, emotional episodes are linked to key performance drivers including perceptions of stress, anxiety, boredom, and well-being. This chapter also explores how regulation of emotion ultimately may be the only difference between peak performance and uncontrolled calamity.

The biopsychology of motivation: Using evidence from neurology and endocrinology to understand motivated behavior

This chapter describes the relationship between human neuroanatomy and selected motivations that underlie learning and performance. Although specific biopsychological correlates of motivation are debated, strong multi-disciplinary evidence reveals that incremental changes within the human nervous and endocrine systems are correlated with organized behavior. First, a myriad of interpretive issues regarding physiological data are presented, along with practical applications for the use of biopsychological findings. Next, key findings relating to variables commonly believed to subsume performance motivation are discussed, including biological correlates of power, affiliation, achievement, pleasure, and pain. Finally, the heritable and evolutionary nature of motivated behavior is reviewed.

Can I see the real me?: The powerful influence of self-beliefs on motivated behavior

The centrality of the self is a compelling and powerful motive that influences our day-to-day decisions and choice. The self is embodied in a series of values, goals, and social standards that inform and direct individual effort. Behavior is subservient to the dominant motive of the self, which is designed to create or improve positive self-concepts in relation to significant others. This chapter examines the variability of idiosyncratic and interpersonal motives grounded in self-worth perceptions that drive self-enhancing and failure-avoiding behavior. Individual differences related to social acceptance, compliance, obedience, altruism, and group dynamics are discussed. Additionally, the chapter reviews the self-protective strategies individuals employ to insulate themselves against the demoralizing prospect of believing they possess insufficient resources to meet learning and performance goals.