Bonita L. McFarlane

The role of social psychological and social structural variables in environmental activism: an example of the forest sector☆

Dissatisfaction with natural resource management and policy is often manifested by engagement in activist behaviors aimed at influencing management and policy decisions. A study was undertaken to examine the relationship between value orientation, attitudes, knowledge, social structural and socialization variables, and environmental activism within the context of a cognitive hierarchy model. Data were collected from the general population of Alberta, Canada by mail survey in 1999. Support was found for a cognitive hierarchy model with value orientation being better predictors of attitudes than social structural or socialization variables. Attitudes toward forest management were associated with activism. Belonging to an environmental organization, however, was a better predictor of activism than social psychological or social structural variables. This suggests the need for a more complete model of activism that considers the interplay between social psychological variables and macro-factors such as the environmental movement in shaping attitudes and engagement in activist behaviors.

Recreation Specialization and Site Choice Among Vehicle-Based Campers

Recreation specialization theory predicts that individuals will differ in their physical, management, and social setting preferences. Few studies, however, support the hypothesis that individuals choose recreation settings consistent with their level of specialization. This study examined the association between behavioral, cognitive, and affective dimensions of specialization and site choice among vehicle-based campers in Alberta, Canada. Data were collected using on-site interviews and a mail survey. Campers at unmanaged sites (no facilities and services) had higher centrality scores, had greater familiarity with the site and more experience with unmanaged sites, and a higher level of bush skill than campers at managed sites. An ordered multinomial logit model showed that the more familiar individuals were with the site and campground type, the higher the level of bush skill, and the more important and central camping was in an individuals life, the greater the probability of choosing a campground type that required a higher degree of self-reliance and decreased dependence on facilities and services. Higher household income increased the probability of camping at managed sites, suggesting that income might limit the expression of specialization by constraining choice to affordable options.

Rural-urban differences in environmental concern in Canada.

Distinctions between rural and urban populations are well documented in environmental sociology literature. Rural and urban places may exert different influences on participation in environmentally supportive behavior (ESB) as well as on other forms of environmental concern (EC). The influence of these distinct geographies may be due to present circumstances or because of childhood socialization in these places. Using data from a national survey in Canada (n51 664), we use cognitive (basic values, environmental worldview, and environmental attitude) and behavioral indicators (public and private sphere) of EC to explore differences among rural and urban populations and we include analyses accounting for place of socialization. We extend the conventional private sphere category of ESB by including stewardship behaviors. Results showed few differences between rural and urban residents on indicators of EC. Rural residents, however, scored higher on altruistic values, placed a higher priority on the environment, and reported higher participation in recycling and stewardship behaviors. Analysis that included place of socialization showed differences on environmental worldview, basic values, and some ESB. In terms of ESB, we conclude that residence and place of socialization may be less of a factor than opportunity and highlight the importance of providing services and facilities. We recommend future research on residence and ESB include a variety of behaviors that reflect opportunities for both rural and urban residents.

Participation in wildlife Conservation by birdwatchers

Abstract Decreasing revenues from traditional sources such as hunting license sales are causing wildlife management agencies to seek methods of raising revenue and generating support for wildlife conservation from nonconsumptive users. A mail survey was used to examine birdwatchers’ participation in wildlife conservation activities. Results show that birders made substantial contributions that increased with higher levels of birding experience. This study suggests that using volunteers, establishing cooperative agreements with private organizations, and recruiting birders in conserving private land for habitat may be acceptable contribution mechanisms for the birding constituency, and that it may be possible to design and market mechanisms for specific subgroups of birders.

Past Experience and Behavioral Choice Among Wilderness Users

Introduction Research in recreation choice behavior has provided insight into the experiences people seek from recreation, setting attributes that are important to recreation experiences, and factors that influence choice behavior (Stankey & McCool, 1985). In wilderness recreation, understanding the factors that influence site choice is important in redistributing use, in maintaining the isolation and solitude characteristics of the wilderness experience, and reducing user conflicts and congestion (Lucas, 1990). The amount of experience in a recreational activity or setting has been cited as one factor influencing site choice (e.g, Bryan, 1977; Virden & Schreyer, 1988; Williams & Huffman, 1986). Bryans (1977) theory of recreation specialization, of which past experience is one component, suggests that as individuals gain experience in an activity they progress through stages of development accompanied by changes in setting preferences, social group affiliation, and attitudes. This developmental approach assumes that individuals choose recreational settings that are consistent with their preferences and attitudes. However, constraints such as site availability, distance to substitute sites, costs, social pressures, and socioeconomic factors may intervene and limit the congruency between individual preference and actual site choice (Kuentzel & Heberlein, 1992; Watson, Roggenbuck, & Williams, 1991). While studies have examined the association between past experience and preferred recreational settings, little research examines whether differences in preferences translate into different recreation site choices (Kuentzel & Heberlein, 1992) and how site choice changes with experience. This paper extends the literature by assessing the influence of past experience on actual site choice. Specifically, we use a conceptual model of recreation choice behavior to examine the association between recreation site choice behavior, past experience, setting preferences, social factors, and constraints among wilderness users. Past Experience and Setting Preferences A common tenet in recreation site choice is that individuals engage in recreational activities at sites where the preferred combination of physical, social, and managerial settings are available to produce satisfying experiences (Driver & Brown, 1978). However, several factors can affect preferences or intervene to affect site choice. One factor associated with setting preferences is the amount of experience an individual has in an activity or setting. Experience has been included as a component in various concepts including recreation specialization (e.g., Bryan, 1977), experience use history (e.g., Schreyer, Lime, & Williams, 1984), and indices of past experience (e.g., Hammitt & McDonald, 1983; Watson & Niccollucci, 1992). Bryan (1977) proposed the concept of recreation specialization to explain differences in observed behaviors among anglers. Specialization is usually considered as a multidimensional construct with behavioral and affective aspects of which past experience is a strong component. Bryan hypothesized that the amount of experience with and commitment to an activity follows a sequence with some individuals progressing through sequential stages of development. As individuals progress along this continuum they become specialized in their behaviors and their attitudes and preferences change. Thus, more experienced users prefer more natural types of conditions and less management intervention. In his study of anglers, Bryan observed that as participants became specialized they joined a leisure social world of fellow anglers who held similar beliefs and attitudes and engaged in similar behaviors. Furthermore, attitudes shifted from a consumptive orientation to preservation and the setting of the activity became more important. He concluded that anglers at different stages of specialization choose different settings in which to fish and that these settings can be predicted by knowing the level of specialization. …

Socialization influences of specialization among birdwatchers

Abstract This study examines the social agents and socialization process for specialization in birdwatching to determine if specialization in a nonconsumptive wildlife‐related recreational activity follows a childhood determination model, as suggested by the hunting literature, or a leisure career model of participation, as suggested by the specialization literature. Data were collected from 787 birders in Alberta, Canada with a mail questionnaire. Results support both a childhood determination and a leisure career model for specialization in birding. More of the advanced birders started during childhood. However, regardless of the age at initiation two factors appear to influence specialization: participation with peers and support of birding activities by ones family. Management implications are discussed.

Environmental Activism in the Forest Sector Social Psychological, Social-Cultural, and Contextual Effects

Forest management in North America has been a focus of environmental activism directed at changing forest policy and management practices. To understand the causal influences of activism directed at the forest sector, a mail survey was distributed to residents of Ontario, Canada, in 2001. A structural equation model provided support for a model of environmental activism based on social psychological and social-cultural variables shaping attitudes and influencing behavior. The contextual effect of region of residence produced significant interaction effects. Results provide support for an elaborated model of environmental activism that includes an individual’s characteristics interacting with macro-factors such as the social, economic, and cultural context in which activism occurs.

Perceptions of Ecological Risk Associated with Mountain Pine Beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) Infestations in Banff and Kootenay National Parks of Canada

Western Canada is experiencing an unprecedented outbreak of the mountain pine beetle (MPB). The MPB has the potential to impact some of Canadas national parks by affecting park ecosystems and the visitor experience. Controls have been initiated in some parks to lessen the impacts and to prevent the beetle from spreading beyond park boundaries. We examine the perception of ecological risk associated with MPB in two of Canadas national parks, the factors affecting perceptions of risk, and the influence of risk judgments on support for controlling MPB outbreaks in national parks. Data were collected using two studies of park visitors: a mail survey in 2003 and an onsite survey in 2005. The MPB was rated as posing a greater risk to the health and productivity of park ecosystems than anthropogenic hazards and other natural disturbance agents. Visitors who were familiar with MPB rated the ecological and visitor experience impacts as negative, unacceptable, and eliciting negative emotion. Knowledge and residency were the most consistent predictors of risk judgments. Of knowledge, risk, and demographic variables, only sex and risk to ecosystem domains influenced support for controlling the MPB in national parks. Implications for managing MPB in national parks, visitor education, and ecological integrity are discussed.

Public Perceptions of Risk to Forest Biodiversity

This study examines the perceived risks to forest biodiversity and perceived effectiveness of biodiversity conservation strategies among the general public. It tests the hypotheses that perceived risk to forest biodiversity is influenced by cognitive factors (value orientation and knowledge) and social-cultural factors (such as gender and environmental membership) and that risk perceptions influence other cognitive constructs such as support for natural resource policy and management. Data were collected from a sample of the general public (n= 596) in British Columbia, Canada by mail survey in 2001. Results show that insects and disease were perceived as the greatest risk. Educating the public and industry about biodiversity issues was perceived as a more effective conservation strategy than restricting human uses of the forest. Value orientation was a better predictor of perceptions of risk and perceived effectiveness of conservation strategies than knowledge indicators or social-cultural variables. Examining the indirect effects of social-cultural variables, however, revealed that value orientation may amplify the effect of these variables and suggests that alternative paths of influence should be included. Perceived risk showed an inconsistent association with perceived effectiveness of conservation strategies.

Implementation of wildfire risk management by local governments in Alberta, Canada

This study examined the implementation of wildfire mitigation by local governments in Alberta, Canada. Written surveys and telephone interviews with participants in 18 municipalities were combined with additional in-person interviews within two of these municipalities. Many participating local governments were completing emergency preparedness plans, infrastructure measures, education, wildfire hazard assessments on public and private land, and vegetation management. Few were implementing land-use planning and structural mitigation measures on local government buildings. Factors that influenced implementation of wildfire mitigation measures included issue advocates, communication with internal and external stakeholders, financial and human resources, support from higher levels of government, and biophysical and demographic characteristics. Recommendations for encouraging the implementation of wildfire mitigation by local governments are provided.