Boris N. Konrad

The role of rapid eye movement sleep for amygdala-related memory processing

Over the years, rapid eye movement (REM) sleep has been associated with general memory consolidation, specific consolidation of perceptual, procedural, emotional and fear memories, brain maturation and preparation of waking consciousness. More recently, some of these associations (e.g., general and procedural memory consolidation) have been shown to be unlikely, while others (e.g., brain maturation and consciousness) remain inconclusive. In this review, we argue that both behavioral and neurophysiological evidence supports a role of REM sleep for amygdala-related memory processing: the amygdala-hippocampus-medial prefrontal cortex network involved in emotional processing, fear memory and valence consolidation shows strongest activity during REM sleep, in contrast to the hippocampus-medial prefrontal cortex only network which is more active during non-REM sleep. However, more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms.

Medial Prefrontal-Hippocampal Connectivity and Motor Memory Consolidation in Depression and Schizophrenia

BACKGROUND Overnight memory consolidation is disturbed in both depression and schizophrenia, creating an ideal situation to investigate the mechanisms underlying sleep-related consolidation and to distinguish disease-specific processes from common elements in their pathophysiology. METHODS We investigated patients with depression and schizophrenia, as well as healthy control subjects (each n = 16), under a motor memory consolidation protocol with functional magnetic resonance imaging and polysomnography. RESULTS In a sequential finger-tapping task associated with the degree of hippocampal-prefrontal cortex functional connectivity during the task, significantly less overnight improvement was identified as a common deficit in both patient groups. A task-related overnight decrease in activation of the basal ganglia was observed in control subjects and schizophrenia patients; in contrast, patients with depression showed an increase. During the task, schizophrenia patients, in comparison with control subjects, additionally recruited adjacent cortical areas, which showed a decrease in functional magnetic resonance imaging activation overnight and were related to disease severity. Effective connectivity analyses revealed that the hippocampus was functionally connected to the motor task network, and the cerebellum decoupled from this network overnight. CONCLUSIONS While both patient groups showed similar deficits in consolidation associated with hippocampal-prefrontal cortex connectivity, other activity patterns more specific for disease pathology differed.

Sleep Spindles and Intelligence: Evidence for a Sexual Dimorphism

Sleep spindles are thalamocortical oscillations in nonrapid eye movement sleep, which play an important role in sleep-related neuroplasticity and offline information processing. Sleep spindle features are stable within and vary between individuals, with, for example, females having a higher number of spindles and higher spindle density than males. Sleep spindles have been associated with learning potential and intelligence; however, the details of this relationship have not been fully clarified yet. In a sample of 160 adult human subjects with a broad IQ range, we investigated the relationship between sleep spindle parameters and intelligence. In females, we found a positive age-corrected association between intelligence and fast sleep spindle amplitude in central and frontal derivations and a positive association between intelligence and slow sleep spindle duration in all except one derivation. In males, a negative association between intelligence and fast spindle density in posterior regions was found. Effects were continuous over the entire IQ range. Our results demonstrate that, although there is an association between sleep spindle parameters and intellectual performance, these effects are more modest than previously reported and mainly present in females. This supports the view that intelligence does not rely on a single neural framework, and stronger neural connectivity manifesting in increased thalamocortical oscillations in sleep is one particular mechanism typical for females but not males.

Complex Motor Sequence Skills Profit from Sleep

Simple motor memory has been shown to benefit from sleep; however, more complex motor skills have rarely been investigated so far. We investigated complex motor learning using a dance mat and choreographies in 36 healthy, young male subjects. Subjects performed one song and two new songs in three sessions distributed over 24 h to test sequence-specific learning and skill transfer. Each song had a unique choreography. One group learned the main song in the evening and was retested 12 and 24 h later on the main song and each one new song (PM-AM-PM). The second group underwent the same procedure; however, the first session was in the morning (AM-PM-AM). Thus, one group slept before the first retest (PM-AM-PM) while the other group slept between the first and the second retest (AM-PM-AM). Regarding sequence-specific learning, sleep induced a significant difference between the groups, which disappeared after both groups had slept. A significant transfer effect occurred independent of sleep. During both new songs, no difference between the groups was seen; however, the second and third songs were learned significantly faster than the first song. This study could show that complex motor sequence learning benefits from sleep while skill transfer seems to occur independently of sleep.

A comparison of two sleep spindle detection methods based on all night averages: individually adjusted vs. fixed frequencies

Sleep spindles are frequently studied for their relationship with state and trait cognitive variables, and they are thought to play an important role in sleep-related memory consolidation. Due to their frequent occurrence in NREM sleep, the detection of sleep spindles is only feasible using automatic algorithms, of which a large number is available. We compared subject averages of the spindle parameters computed by a fixed frequency (FixF) (11–13 Hz for slow spindles, 13–15 Hz for fast spindles) automatic detection algorithm and the individual adjustment method (IAM), which uses individual frequency bands for sleep spindle detection. Fast spindle duration and amplitude are strongly correlated in the two algorithms, but there is little overlap in fast spindle density and slow spindle parameters in general. The agreement between fixed and manually determined sleep spindle frequencies is limited, especially in case of slow spindles. This is the most likely reason for the poor agreement between the two detection methods in case of slow spindle parameters. Our results suggest that while various algorithms may reliably detect fast spindles, a more sophisticated algorithm primed to individual spindle frequencies is necessary for the detection of slow spindles as well as individual variations in the number of spindles in general.

Lunar cycle effects on sleep and the file drawer problem

Summary Popular beliefs about the influence of the full moon on humans exist, although no solid evidence has so far confirmed these ideas [1]. Cajochen et al. [2] recently presented fascinating data on lunar cycle effects on human sleep. However, in a re-analysis of sleep electroencephalography (EEG) data in three large samples, we were unable to replicate their findings. In addition, we identified further mostly unpublished null findings, suggesting that the conflicting results might be an example of a publication bias (i.e., the file drawer problem).

Super-Memorizers Are Not Super-Recognizers

Humans have a natural expertise in recognizing faces. However, the nature of the interaction between this critical visual biological skill and memory is yet unclear. Here, we had the unique opportunity to test two individuals who have had exceptional success in the World Memory Championships, including several world records in face-name association memory. We designed a range of face processing tasks to determine whether superior/expert face memory skills are associated with distinctive perceptual strategies for processing faces. Superior memorizers excelled at tasks involving associative face-name learning. Nevertheless, they were as impaired as controls in tasks probing the efficiency of the face system: face inversion and the other-race effect. Super memorizers did not show increased hippocampal volumes, and exhibited optimal generic eye movement strategies when they performed complex multi-item face-name associations. Our data show that the visual computations of the face system are not malleable and are robust to acquired expertise involving extensive training of associative memory.

Ghrelin modulates encoding-related brain function without enhancing memory formation in humans

Ghrelin regulates energy homeostasis in various species and enhances memory in rodent models. In humans, the role of ghrelin in cognitive processes has yet to be characterized. Here we show in a double-blind randomized crossover design that acute administration of ghrelin alters encoding-related brain activity, however does not enhance memory formation in humans. Twenty-one healthy young male participants had to memorize food- and non-food-related words presented on a background of a virtual navigational route while undergoing fMRI recordings. After acute ghrelin administration, we observed decreased post-encoding resting state fMRI connectivity between the caudate nucleus and the insula, amygdala, and orbitofrontal cortex. In addition, brain activity related to subsequent memory performance was modulated by ghrelin. On the next day, however, no differences were found in free word recall or cued location-word association recall between conditions; and ghrelins effects on brain activity or functional connectivity were unrelated to memory performance. Further, ghrelin had no effect on a cognitive test battery comprising tests for working memory, fluid reasoning, creativity, mental speed, and attention. In conclusion, in contrast to studies with animal models, we did not find any evidence for the potential of ghrelin acting as a short-term cognitive enhancer in humans.

Mnemonic expertise during wakefulness and sleep

We studied the worlds most distinguished experts in the use of mnemonic techniques: the top participants of the World Memory Championships. They neither feel the use of mnemonics to be dreamlike, nor does their REM sleep differ from mnemonic-naive control subjects. Besides these empirical data, also theoretical considerations contradict an isomorphism between features of REM sleep dreaming and mnemonic principles.

Nap sleep spindle correlates of intelligence

Sleep spindles are thalamocortical oscillations in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, that play an important role in sleep-related neuroplasticity and offline information processing. Several studies with full-night sleep recordings have reported a positive association between sleep spindles and fluid intelligence scores, however more recently it has been shown that only few sleep spindle measures correlate with intelligence in females, and none in males. Sleep spindle regulation underlies a circadian rhythm, however the association between spindles and intelligence has not been investigated in daytime nap sleep so far. In a sample of 86 healthy male human subjects, we investigated the correlation between fluid intelligence and sleep spindle parameters in an afternoon nap of 100 minutes. Mean sleep spindle length, amplitude and density were computed for each subject and for each derivation for both slow and fast spindles. A positive association was found between intelligence and slow spindle duration, but not any other sleep spindle parameter. As a positive correlation between intelligence and slow sleep spindle duration in full-night polysomnography has only been reported in females but not males, our results suggest that the association between intelligence and sleep spindles is more complex than previously assumed.