Bradley W. Young

20 years later: deliberate practice and the development of expertise in sport

Twenty-one years ago, Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Romer published their seminal work expounding the notion of deliberate practice in explaining the development of expertise. This concept has since become extremely influential in the fields of sport psychology and motor learning. This review evaluates current understanding of deliberate practice in sport skill acquisition with an emphasis on the role of deliberate practice in distinguishing expert athletes from non-experts. In particular, we re-examine the original tenets of Ericsson et al.s framework to (a) evaluate the sport-related research supporting their claims and (b) identify remaining research questions in this area. The review highlights the overall importance of deliberate practice in the development of expert sport performers; however, our understanding is far from complete. Several directions for future research are highlighted, including the need for more rigorous research designs and statistical models that can evaluate changes in developmental and contextual factors across development. Finally, we advocate for a more thorough understanding of the implications of a ‘deliberate practice approach’ for coaching science.

Gender, age, and sport differences in relative age effects among US Masters swimming and track and field athletes

Abstract A relative age effect has been identified in Masters sports (Medic, Starkes, & Young, 2007). Since gender, age, and type of sport have been found to influence the relative age effect in youth sports (Musch & Grondin, 2001), we examined how these three variables influenced possible relative age effects among Masters swimmers and track and field athletes. Using archived data between 1996 and 2006, frequency of participation entries and record-setting performances at the US Masters championships were examined as a function of an individuals constituent year within any 5-year age category. Study 1 investigated the frequency of Master athletes who participated; Study 2 examined the frequency of performance records that were set across constituent years within an age category, while accounting for the distribution of participation frequencies. Results showed that a participation-related relative age effect in Masters sports is stronger for males, that it becomes progressively stronger with each successive decade of life, and that it does not differ across track and field and swimming. In addition, a performance-related relative age effect in Masters sport seems to be stronger for swimming than track and field, but it does not differ across gender and decades of life.

Discriminating skilled coaching groups: quantitative examination of developmental experiences and activities.

Literature suggests that the pathway to coaching excellence involves progression through incremental skilled coaching groups over extended durations. Critical in this development is the immersion of developing coaches in various domains of engagement and learning over time. Using a retrospective survey, this study quantified the cumulative activities, experiences, and interactions that competitive-stream Canadian track and field coaches experienced in formal coaching education, active coaching experience, mentoring, and former athletic experience domains. Analyses identified critical experiences that discriminated between four incremental skill groups: local club (n = 24), senior club (n = 19), provincial (n =10), and national coaches (n = 18). Results demonstrated that certain measures in each of the domains discriminated between the groups, including years of coaching, interactive hours working with athletes, having more assisting coaches whom one has mentored, and having taken more post-secondary coaching courses. These variables, along with former athletic experience prerequisites, were attached to a preliminary between-group developmental framework.

Examining relative age effects on performance achievement and participation rates in Masters athletes

Abstract Although the relative age effect has been widely observed in youth sports (Musch & Grondin, 2001), it is unclear whether it generalizes across the lifespan. The purpose of this study was to examine the relative age effect among a population of Masters athletes using archived data. Two successive studies examined the frequency of record-setting achievements (Study 1) and the frequency of participation entries (Study 2) at the US Masters track-and-field and swimming championships as a function of an individuals constituent year within any 5-year age category. Results of Study 1 indicated that the probability of setting a record increased if Masters athletes were in the first year, and decreased if they were in the third, fourth or fifth year, of an age category. Results of Study 2 indicated that the likelihood of participating in the National championships increased if Masters athletes were in the first or second year, and decreased if they were in the fourth or fifth year, of an age category. We highlight and discuss potential advantages afforded to Masters athletes who are relatively younger than their peers in the same 5-year age category.

Career-Span Analyses of Track Performance: Longitudinal Data Present a More Optimistic View of Age-Related Performance Decline

Abstract Sport scientists (Starkes, Weir, Singh, Hodges, & Kerr, 1999; Starkes, Weir, & Young, 2003) have suggested that prolonged training is critical for the maintenance of athletic performance even in the face of predicted age-related decline. This study used polynomial regression analyses to examine the relationship between age and running performance in the 1500 and 10,000 metre events. We compared the age and career-longitudinal performances for 15 male Canadian Masters athletes with a cross-sectional sample of performances at different ages. We hypothesized that the 30 years of uninterrupted training characteristic of this longitudinal sample would moderate the patterns of age-related decline (retention hypothesis); alternatively, the cross-sectional data were expected to demonstrate pronounced age-related decline (quadratic hypothesis). Investigators performed multimodel regression analyses on the age and performance data. Based on the absence (for longitudinal data) or presence (for the cross-sectional data) of significant quadratic components in second-order polynomial models, the authors found support for their respective hypotheses. The longitudinal data showed that running performance declined with age in a more linear fashion than did cross-sectional data. Graphical trends showed that the moderation of age-related decline appeared greater for the longitudinal 10 km performances than for the 1500 m event.

Meso and micro-scale response of post carbon removal nitrifying MBBR biofilm across carrier type and loading

This study investigates the effects of three specific moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) carrier types and two surface area loading rates on biofilm thickness, morphology and bacterial community structure of post carbon removal nitrifying MBBR systems along with the effects of carrier type and loading on ammonia removal rates and effluent solids settleability. The meso and micro analyses show that the AOB kinetics vary based on loading condition, but irrespective of carrier type. The meso-scale response to increases in loading was shown to be an increase in biofilm thickness with higher surface area carriers being more inclined to develop and maintain thicker biofilms. The pore spaces of these higher surface area to volume carriers also demonstrated the potential to become clogged at higher loading conditions. Although the biofilm thickness increased during higher loading conditions, the relative percentages of both the embedded viable and non-viable cells at high and conventional loading conditions remained stable; indicating that the reduced ammonia removal kinetics observed during carrier clogging events is likely due to the observed reduction in the surface area of the attached biofilm. Microbial community analyses demonstrated that the dominant ammonia oxidizing bacteria for all carriers is Nitrosomonas while the dominant nitrite oxidizing bacteria is Nitrospira. The research showed that filamentous species were abundant under high loading conditions, which likely resulted in the observed reduction in effluent solids settleability at high loading conditions as opposed to conventional loading conditions. Although the settleability of the effluent solids was correlated to increases in abundances of filamentous organisms in the biofilm, analyzed using next generation sequencing, the ammonia removal rate was not shown to be directly correlated to specific meso or micro-scale characteristics. Instead post carbon removal MBBR ammonia removal kinetics were shown to be related to the viable AOB cell coverage of the carriers; which was calculated by normalizing the surface area removal rate by the biofilm thickness, the bacterial percent abundance of ammonia oxidizing bacteria and the percentage of viable cells.

Measuring Outcomes of Swimmers' Non-regulation during Practice: Relationships between Self-report, Coaches' Judgments, and Video-observation

The purpose of this investigation was to further validate measures for three behavioral items that coaches claimed to reflect outcomes of non-regulation by swimmers during training. Measures for 33 competitive swimmers were collected for behaviors that reflected a lack of motivation to comply with a coachs full training volume prescription in (1) warm-up, and in the (2) remaining workout, as well for (3) the off-task durations of swimmers in warm-up. Measures were collected concurrently via self-report and video-observation at nine practices across five weeks of training. Coaches rated swimmers for levels of (a) on-task behavior in warm-up, and (b) initiative, motivation and discipline in the workout. Self-reported and observed measures were separately contrasted with low and high motivation groups, based on coach ratings. Results showed that when coaches rated swimmers low on self-regulated behaviors the swimmers had in fact completed less of the prescribed swim volume. Likewise, swimmers who spent a lot of time out-of-stroke in warm-up were not self-regulated, according to coach ratings. In a supplementary analysis, self-reported measures for missed volume during warm-up were contrasted with veridical measures obtained by video observation for a sub-set of 16 swimmers. Findings indicated that self-report at the end of workout was inaccurate and/or biased due to distorted memory processes and self-presentation influences. Discussion focused on the future use of valid and observable measures representing outcomes of non-regulation in applied sport intervention research.

Examining relationships between passion types, conflict and negative outcomes in masters athletes

This study examined the Dualistic Model of Passion [Vallerand, R. J., Blanchard, C. M., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Ratelle, C. F., Léonard, M., … Marsolais, J. (2003). Les passions de l’âme: On obsessive and harmonious passion. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 85, 756–767. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.756] among a sample of 121 (M age = 53.4, SD = 11.3) international-level masters track and field athletes. Using cross-sectional survey responses, we tested relationships between obsessive passion (OP) and harmonious passion (HP) types and negative sport outcomes. Using indirect effect testing as well as tests for simple mediation effects, we further examined how conflict intervened in the manifestation of negative outcomes, for OP and HP, separately. Results showed that OP and HP had opposite relationships with conflict, and with negative outcomes. OP was directly associated with self-pressure, and indirectly associated with negative emotions, amotivation and intent to reduce involvement through its association with higher conflict. HP was inversely and directly associated with negative emotions, amotivation and intent to reduce involvement; however, no indirect associations via conflict were apparent. The findings illustrate the dualistic nature of passion in a competitive adult sport sample, and suggest that the negative impacts of OP may depend on whether a passionate sport activity is conflictually internalised to ones identity.

Pilot-scale tertiary MBBR nitrification at 1°C: characterization of ammonia removal rate, solids settleability and biofilm characteristics

ABSTRACT Pilot-scale moving bed biofilm reactor (MBBR) is used to investigate the kinetics and biofilm response of municipal, tertiary nitrification at 1°C. The research demonstrates that significant rates of tertiary MBBR nitrification are attainable and stable for extended periods of operation at 1°C, with a maximum removal rate of 230 gN/m3 d at 1°C. At conventional nitrogen loading rates, low ammonia effluent concentrations below 5 mg-N/L were achieved at 1°C. The biofilm thickness and dry weight biofilm mass (massdw) were shown to be stable, with thickness values showing a correlation to the protein/polysaccharide ratio of the biofilm extracellular polymeric substances. Lastly, tertiary MBBR nitrification is shown to increase the effluent suspended solids concentrations by approximately 3 mg total suspended solids /L, with 19–60% of effluent solids being removed after 30 min of settling. The settleability of the effluent solids was shown to be correlated to the nitrogen loading of the MBBR system.

Coaches' Perceptions of Non-Regulated Training Behaviors in Competitive Swimmers

Athletes who fail to self-regulate are less disciplined and motivated, show less initiative, and fail to maximize opportunities for acquisition during training. This investigation attempted to identify a short list of behaviors that swim coaches recognized as indicators of non-regulation by their swimmers during training. In Study 1, five coaches described the behavior of swimmers in various contexts during interviews. Qualitative analysis of interviews resulted in two lists of 28 activities that characterized self-regulation and non-regulation, respectively. In Study 2, two different samples of coaches (n=18; n=16) rated the items identified in Study 1 for how well they represented self-regulated and non-regulated training behaviors among swimmers. Based on inclusion criteria, two lists of 28 items were shortened to one list of seven non-regulated training habits, including: poor attendance; off-task in warm-up; incomplete volume in warm-up; incomplete volume for the entire workout; inaccurate recall of pace times; last to arrive on deck; and lack of focus during kick sets. The authors discuss the relevance of an observational checklist for helping coaches identify athletes in need of remedial self-regulatory strategies, as well as how measures for these items may be employed in intervention research.